Chapter LXVIII:

  
          The siege of  Constantinople by the Turks attracts our first
          attention  to  the   person   and  character  of  the  great
          destroyer. Mahomet the  Second  (1) was the son of the second
          Amurath; and though  his  mother has been decorated with the
          titles of Christian  and  princess,  she  is  more  probably
          confounded with the  numerous  concubines  who  peopled from
          every climate the  harem  of the sultan. His first education
          and sentiments were  those  of  a  devout  Mussulman; and as
          often as he conversed with an infidel, he purified his hands
          and face by  the  legal  rites  of  ablution. Age and empire
          appear to have  relaxed  this  narrow  bigotry: his aspiring
          genius disdained to  acknowledge  a power above his own; and
          in his looser  hours  he  presumed (it is said) to brand the
          prophet of Mecca  as  a robber and impostor.  Yet the sultan
          persevered  in a  decent  reverence  for  the  doctrine  and
          discipline of the  Koran:  (2)  his private indiscretion must
          have been sacred  from the vulgar ear; and we should suspect
          the  credulity of  strangers  and  sectaries,  so  prone  to
          believe that a  mind which is hardened against truth must be
          armed with superior  contempt for absurdity and error. Under
          the tuition of  the  most  skilful masters, Mahomet advanced
          with an early  and rapid progress in the paths of knowledge;
          and besides his  native  tongue it is affirmed that he spoke
          or understood five  languages,  (3)  the Arabic, the Persian,
          the Chaldaean or  Hebrew,  the  Latin,  and  the Greek.  The
          Persian might indeed  contribute  to  his amusement, and the
          Arabic to his  edification; and such studies are familiar to
          the Oriental youth.   In  the  intercourse of the Greeks and
          Turks, a conqueror  might  wish  to converse with the people
          over which he  was  ambitious  to  reign: his own praises in
          Latin poetry (4)  or  prose  (5)  might  find a passage to the
          royal ear; but  what  use  or  merit  could recommend to the
          statesman or the  scholar  the uncouth dialect of his Hebrew
          slaves? The history and geography of the world were familiar
          to his memory:  the lives of the heroes of the East, perhaps
          of  the  West,  (6)  excited  his  emulation:  his  skill  in
          astrology is excused by the folly of the times, and supposes
          some rudiments of  mathematical science; and a profane taste
          for the arts  is  betrayed  in  his  liberal  invitation and
          reward of the  painters  of  Italy.  (7) But the influence of
          religion and learning  were  employed  without effect on his
          savage and licentious nature.  I will not transcribe, nor do
          I firmly believe,  the  stories of his fourteen pages, whose
          bellies were ripped  open in search of a stolen melon; or of
          the beauteous slave, whose head he severed from her body, to
          convince the Janizaries that their master was not the votary
          of love. (A)  His  sobriety is attested by the silence of the
          Turkish annals, which  accuse  three, and three only, of the
          Ottoman line of the vice of drunkenness. (8) But it cannot be
          denied  that  his   passions   were   at  once  furious  and
          inexorable; that in  the  palace, as in the field, a torrent
          of blood was  spilt  on  the slightest provocation; and that
          the noblest of  the  captive  youth were often dishonored by
          his unnatural lust.  In  the  Albanian  war  he  studied the
          lessons, and soon  surpassed the example, of his father; and
          the  conquest of  two  empires,  twelve  kingdoms,  and  two
          hundred cities, a  vain  and flattering account, is ascribed
          to his invincible  sword.   He  was doubtless a soldier, and
          possibly a general; Constantinople has sealed his glory; but
          if  we  compare   the   means,   the   obstacles,   and  the
          achievements, Mahomet the  Second  must  blush  to sustain a
          parallel with Alexander  or  Timour.  Under his command, the
          Ottoman forces were always more numerous than their enemies;
          yet their progress  was  bounded  by  the  Euphrates and the
          Adriatic;  and  his   arms  were  checked  by  Huniades  and
          Scanderbeg, by the Rhodian knights and by the Persian king.

  
          In the reign  of  Amurath,  he  twice tasted of royalty, and
          twice  descended  from   the  throne:  his  tender  age  was
          incapable of opposing  his  father's  restoration, but never
          could  he forgive  the  viziers  who  had  recommended  that
          salutary measure.  His  nuptials  were  celebrated  with the
          daughter of a  Turkman  emir;  and,  after a festival of two
          months, he departed  from  Adrianople  with  his  bride,  to
          reside in the government of Magnesia.  Before the end of six
          weeks, he was  recalled  by a sudden message from the divan,
          which announced the  decease  of  Amurath,  and the mutinous
          spirit of the  Janizaries.   His  speed  and vigor commanded
          their obedience: he  passed  the  Hellespont  with  a chosen
          guard: and at  the  distance  of a mile from Adrianople, the
          viziers and emirs,  the  imams and candhis, the soldiers and
          the people, fell  prostrate  before  the  new  sultan.  They
          affected to weep,  they affected to rejoice: he ascended the
          throne at the age of twenty-one years, and removed the cause
          of sedition by  the  death,  the  inevitable  death,  of his
          infant brothers. (9)  (B)  The  ambassadors of Europe and Asia
          soon appeared to  congratulate his accession and solicit his
          friendship; and to  all  he spoke the language of moderation
          and peace.  The  confidence of the Greek emperor was revived
          by the solemn oaths and fair assurances with which he sealed
          the ratification of  the  treaty:  and  a rich domain on the
          banks of the  Strymon was assigned for the annual payment of
          three hundred thousand  aspers,  the  pension  of an Ottoman
          prince, who was  detained  at  his  request in the Byzantine
          court.  Yet the  neighbors  of  Mahomet might tremble at the
          severity with which  a youthful monarch reformed the pomp of
          his father's household:  the expenses of luxury were applied
          to those of  ambition, and a useless train of seven thousand
          falconers was either dismissed from his service, or enlisted
          in his troops.  (C) In  the  first  summer  of his reign, he
          visited  with an  army  the  Asiatic  provinces;  but  after
          humbling the pride,  Mahomet accepted the submission, of the
          Caramanian, that he  might  not  be diverted by the smallest
          obstacle from the execution of his great design. (10)

  
          The Mahometan, and  more  especially  the  Turkish casuists,
          have  pronounced that  no  promise  can  bind  the  faithful
          against the interest  and  duty  of their religion; and that
          the sultan may  abrogate  his  own treaties and those of his
          predecessors.  The justice  and  magnanimity  of Amurath had
          scorned this immoral  privilege;  but  his  son,  though the
          proudest of men,  could  stoop  from  ambition to the basest
          arts of dissimulation  and  deceit.  Peace  was on his lips,
          while war was  in  his  heart: he incessantly sighed for the
          possession of Constantinople;  and  the Greeks, by their own
          indiscretion,  afforded the  first  pretence  of  the  fatal
          rupture. (11) Instead  of  laboring  to  be  forgotten, their
          ambassadors pursued his  camp,  to  demand  the payment, and
          even the increase,  of  their  annual stipend: the divan was
          importuned by their  complaints,  and  the  vizier, a secret
          friend of the  Christians,  was  constrained  to deliver the
          sense of his  brethren.   "Ye foolish and miserable Romans,"
          said Calil, "we  know  your  devices, and ye are ignorant of
          your own danger!  The  scrupulous  Amurath  is  no more; his
          throne is occupied  by  a  young conqueror, whom no laws can
          bind, and no  obstacles  can  resist: and if you escape from
          his hands, give  praise  to  the  divine clemency, which yet
          delays the chastisement  of  your  sins.  Why  do ye seek to
          affright  us by  vain  and  indirect  menaces?  Release  the
          fugitive Orchan, crown  him  sultan  of  Romania;  call  the
          Hungarians  from beyond  the  Danube;  arm  against  us  the
          nations of the  West;  and  be  assured,  that you will only
          provoke and precipitate  your ruin." But if the fears of the
          ambassadors  were alarmed  by  the  stern  language  of  the
          vizier, they were  soothed  by  the  courteous  audience and
          friendly speeches of the Ottoman prince; and Mahomet assured
          them that on  his  return to Adrianople he would redress the
          grievances, and consult  the  true interests, of the Greeks.
          No sooner had  he  repassed the Hellespont, than he issued a
          mandate  to suppress  their  pension,  and  to  expel  their
          officers from the  banks  of the Strymon: in this measure he
          betrayed a hostile mind; and the second order announced, and
          in some degree  commenced,  the siege of Constantinople.  In
          the narrow pass  of  the  Bosphorus, an Asiatic fortress had
          formerly been raised  by  his  grandfather;  in the opposite
          situation, on the European side, he resolved to erect a more
          formidable castle; and  a  thousand masons were commanded to
          assemble in the  spring on a spot named Asomaton, about five
          miles from the  Greek  metropolis.  (12)  Persuasion  is  the
          resource of the  feeble; and the feeble can seldom persuade:
          the ambassadors of  the  emperor attempted, without success,
          to divert Mahomet  from  the  execution of his design.  They
          represented,  that  his   grandfather   had   solicited  the
          permission  of  Manuel   to   build  a  castle  on  his  own
          territories; but that this double fortification, which would
          command the strait,  could only tend to violate the alliance
          of the nations;  to  intercept  the Latins who traded in the
          Black Sea, and  perhaps to annihilate the subsistence of the
          city.   "I form  the  enterprise,"  replied  the  perfidious
          sultan, "against the  city; but the empire of Constantinople
          is measured by  her  walls.  Have you forgot the distress to
          which my father  was  reduced  when you formed a league with
          the Hungarians; when  they  invaded our country by land, and
          the Hellespont was  occupied  by the French galleys? Amurath
          was compelled to  force  the  passage  of the Bosphorus; and
          your strength was not equal to your malevolence.  I was then
          a child at  Adrianople;  the  Moslems  trembled;  and, for a
          while, the Gabours  (13)  insulted our disgrace.  But when my
          father had triumphed  in  the  field  of  Warna, he vowed to
          erect a fort  on  the  western  shore, and that vow it is my
          duty to accomplish.   Have  ye the right, have ye the power,
          to control my  actions  on my own ground? For that ground is
          my own: as  far  as  the  shores  of  the Bosphorus, Asia is
          inhabited by the  Turks,  and  Europe  is  deserted  by  the
          Romans.  Return, and  inform  your  king,  that  the present
          Ottoman is far  different  from  his  predecessors; that his
          resolutions surpass their  wishes; and that he performs more
          than they could resolve. Return in safety - but the next who
          delivers a similar  message  may expect to be flayed alive."
          After this declaration, Constantine, the first of the Greeks
          in spirit as  in  rank,  (14) had determined to unsheathe the
          sword, and to  resist  the approach and establishment of the
          Turks on the  Bosphorus.   He  was disarmed by the advice of
          his civil and  ecclesiastical  ministers,  who recommended a
          system less generous,  and  even less prudent, than his own,
          to approve their  patience  and long-suffering, to brand the
          Ottoman with the  name  and  guilt  of  an aggressor, and to
          depend on chance  and  time  for  their  own safety, and the
          destruction of a  fort which could not long be maintained in
          the neighborhood of  a great and populous city.  Amidst hope
          and fear, the  fears  of  the  wise,  and  the  hopes of the
          credulous, the winter  rolled  away;  the proper business of
          each man, and  each hour, was postponed; and the Greeks shut
          their eyes against the impending danger, till the arrival of
          the spring and  the  sultan  decide  the  assurance of their
          ruin.

  
          Of a master  who  never  forgives,  the  orders  are  seldom
          disobeyed.  On the twenty-sixth of March, the appointed spot
          of Asomaton was  covered  with  an  active  swarm of Turkish
          artificers;  and  the   materials   by  sea  and  land  were
          diligently transported from  Europe  and  Asia. (15) The lime
          had been burnt  in  Cataphrygia;  the timber was cut down in
          the woods of Heraclea and Nicomedia; and the stones were dug
          from the Anatolian  quarries.   Each  of the thousand masons
          was assisted by two workmen; and a measure of two cubits was
          marked for their  daily task.  The fortress (16) was built in
          a triangular form;  each  angle  was flanked by a strong and
          massy tower; one on the declivity of the hill, two along the
          sea-shore: a thickness  of  twenty-two feet was assigned for
          the walls, thirty for the towers; and the whole building was
          covered with a  solid  platform  of  lead.   Mahomet himself
          pressed and directed  the work with indefatigable ardor: his
          three  viziers  claimed   the   honor   of  finishing  their
          respective towers; the  zeal  of the cadhis emulated that of
          the  Janizaries; the  meanest  labor  was  ennobled  by  the
          service of God  and  the  sultan;  and  the diligence of the
          multitude was quickened  by the eye of a despot, whose smile
          was the hope  of  fortune, and whose frown was the messenger
          of  death.   The   Greek  emperor  beheld  with  terror  the
          irresistible progress of  the  work;  and  vainly strove, by
          flattery  and gifts,  to  assuage  an  implacable  foe,  who
          sought, and secretly  fomented,  the slightest occasion of a
          quarrel. Such occasions  must  soon and inevitably be found.
          The ruins of  stately  churches, and even the marble columns
          which had been  consecrated  to Saint Michael the archangel,
          were employed without  scruple  by the profane and rapacious
          Moslems; and some  Christians,  who  presumed  to oppose the
          removal, received from  their  hands the crown of martyrdom.
          Constantine had solicited  a  Turkish  guard  to protect the
          fields and harvests  of  his  subjects: the guard was fixed;
          but their first order was to allow free pasture to the mules
          and horses of the camp, and to defend their brethren if they
          should be molested by the natives. The retinue of an Ottoman
          chief had left their horses to pass the night among the ripe
          corn; the damage  was  felt;  the  insult  was resented; and
          several of both nations were slain in a tumultuous conflict.
          Mahomet listened with joy to the complaint; and a detachment
          was commanded to  exterminate the guilty village: the guilty
          had fled; but  forty  innocent and unsuspecting reapers were
          massacred  by  the   soldiers.    Till   this   provocation,
          Constantinople had been opened to the visits of commerce and
          curiosity: on the  first alarm, the gates were shut; but the
          emperor, still anxious  for peace, released on the third day
          his Turkish captives;  (17) and expressed, in a last message,
          the firm resignation  of  a Christian and a soldier.  "Since
          neither oaths, nor treaty, nor submission, can secure peace,
          pursue," said he  to  Mahomet,  "your  impious  warfare.  My
          trust is in  God  alone;  if it should please him to mollify
          your heart, I  shall  rejoice  in  the  happy  change; if he
          delivers the city into your hands, I submit without a murmur
          to his holy  will.   But  until the Judge of the earth shall
          pronounce between us,  it  is my duty to live and die in the
          defence of my  people."  The sultan's answer was hostile and
          decisive: his fortifications  were completed; and before his
          departure for Adrianople,  he  stationed  a vigilant Aga and
          four hundred Janizaries,  to  levy a tribute on the ships of
          every nation that  should  pass  within  the  reach of their
          cannon.  A Venetian  vessel,  refusing  obedience to the new
          lords of the  Bosphorus,  was  sunk with a single bullet. (D)
          The master and  thirty sailors escaped in the boat; but they
          were dragged in  chains to the Porte: the chief was impaled;
          his companions were  beheaded;  and  the historian Ducas (18)
          beheld,  at Demotica,  their  bodies  exposed  to  the  wild
          beasts.  The siege  of  Constantinople was deferred till the
          ensuing spring; but  an  Ottoman army marched into the Morea
          to divert the force of the brothers of Constantine.  At this
          aera of calamity,  one  of these princes, the despot Thomas,
          was blessed or  afflicted with the birth of a son; "the last
          heir," says the plaintive Phranza, "of the last spark of the
          Roman empire." (19)

  
          The Greeks and  the  Turks  passed  an anxious and sleepless
          winter: the former  were  kept  awake  by  their  fears, the
          latter by their  hopes;  both by the preparations of defence
          and attack; and  the  two emperors, who had the most to lose
          or to gain,  were  the  most deeply affected by the national
          sentiment. In Mahomet,  that  sentiment  was inflamed by the
          ardor of his  youth  and  temper: he amused his leisure with
          building at Adrianople  (20)  the lofty palace of Jehan Numa,
          (the watchtower of the world;) but his serious thoughts were
          irrevocably bent on  the conquest of the city of Caesar.  At
          the dead of  night,  about the second watch, he started from
          his bed, and  commanded  the instant attendance of his prime
          vizier.  The message,  the  hour,  the  prince,  and his own
          situation, alarmed the guilty conscience of Calil Basha; who
          had possessed the  confidence,  and advised the restoration,
          of Amurath.  On  the  accession  of  the son, the vizier was
          confirmed in his  office  and  the appearances of favor; but
          the veteran statesman  was  not insensible that he trod on a
          thin  and  slippery   ice,   which  might  break  under  his
          footsteps, and plunge  him in the abyss.  His friendship for
          the Christians, which  might  be  innocent  under  the  late
          reign, had stigmatized  him with the name of Gabour Ortachi,
          or foster-brother of  the  infidels;  (21)  and  his  avarice
          entertained a venal  and  treasonable  correspondence, which
          was detected and  punished  after the conclusion of the war.
          On receiving the royal mandate, he embraced, perhaps for the
          last time, his  wife  and children; filled a cup with pieces
          of gold, hastened  to  the  palace,  adored  the sultan, and
          offered,  according  to  the  Oriental  custom,  the  slight
          tribute of his  duty and gratitude. (22) "It is not my wish,"
          said Mahomet, "to  resume  my  gifts, but rather to heap and
          multiply them on  thy head.  In my turn, I ask a present far
          more valuable and important; Constantinople." As soon as the
          vizier had recovered from his surprise, "The same God," said
          he, "who has  already  given  thee so large a portion of the
          Roman empire, will  not  deny  the remnant, and the capital.
          His providence, and  thy  power,  assure  thy  success;  and
          myself, with the rest of thy faithful slaves, will sacrifice
          our lives and  fortunes."  -  "Lala,"  (23)  (or  preceptor,)
          continued the sultan,  "do  you  see  this  pillow?  All the
          night, in my agitation, I have pulled it on one side and the
          other; I have risen from my bed, again have I lain down; yet
          sleep has not  visited  these weary eyes. Beware of the gold
          and silver of  the Romans: in arms we are superior; and with
          the aid of  God,  and  the  prayers of the prophet, we shall
          speedily become masters  of  Constantinople."  To  sound the
          disposition of his  soldiers,  he often wandered through the
          streets alone, and in disguise; and it was fatal to discover
          the sultan, when  he  wished  to escape from the vulgar eye.
          His hours were  spent in delineating the plan of the hostile
          city; in debating  with  his generals and engineers, on what
          spot he should  erect his batteries; on which side he should
          assault the walls; where he should spring his mines; to what
          place he should apply his scaling-ladders: and the exercises
          of the day  repeated  and  proved  the  lucubrations  of the
          night.

  
          Among  the  implements   of  destruction,  he  studied  with
          peculiar care the  recent  and  tremendous  discovery of the
          Latins;  and  his   artillery  surpassed  whatever  had  yet
          appeared in the  world.   A  founder of cannon, a Dane (E) or
          Hungarian, who had been almost starved in the Greek service,
          deserted to the  Moslems,  and  was liberally entertained by
          the Turkish sultan. Mahomet was satisfied with the answer to
          his first question,  which he eagerly pressed on the artist.
          "Am I able  to  cast  a cannon capable of throwing a ball or
          stone  of  sufficient   size   to   batter   the   walls  of
          Constantinople? I am  not  ignorant  of  their strength; but
          were they more  solid  than those of Babylon, I could oppose
          an engine of  superior power: the position and management of
          that  engine must  be  left  to  your  engineers."  On  this
          assurance, a foundry  was  established  at  Adrianople:  the
          metal was prepared;  and  at  the end of three months, Urban
          produced a piece of brass ordnance of stupendous, and almost
          incredible magnitude; a  measure of twelve palms is assigned
          to the bore;  and the stone bullet weighed above six hundred
          pounds. (24) (F)  A  vacant  place  before  the new palace was
          chosen for the  first  experiment; but to prevent the sudden
          and  mischievous  effects   of   astonishment  and  fear,  a
          proclamation was issued, that the cannon would be discharged
          the ensuing day.   The  explosion  was  felt  or  heard in a
          circuit of a  hundred  furlongs:  the  ball, by the force of
          gunpowder, was driven above a mile; and on the spot where it
          fell, it buried itself a fathom deep in the ground.  For the
          conveyance of this  destructive  engine, a frame or carriage
          of thirty wagons  was  linked  together and drawn along by a
          team of sixty  oxen:  two  hundred  men  on  both sides were
          stationed, to poise  and  support  the  rolling  weight; two
          hundred and fifty  workmen  marched before to smooth the way
          and repair the bridges; and near two months were employed in
          a laborious journey of one hundred and fifty miles. A lively
          philosopher (25) derides  on  this  occasion the credulity of
          the Greeks, and  observes,  with much reason, that we should
          always distrust the  exaggerations  of  a vanquished people.
          He calculates, that a ball, even o two hundred pounds, would
          require a charge  of one hundred and fifty pounds of powder;
          and that the  stroke would be feeble and impotent, since not
          a fifteenth part  of  the mass could be inflamed at the same
          moment. A stranger  as I am to the art of destruction, I can
          discern that the modern improvements of artillery prefer the
          number of pieces  to  the  weight of metal; the quickness of
          the fire to  the sound, or even the consequence, of a single
          explosion.  Yet I dare not reject the positive and unanimous
          evidence  of  contemporary   writers;   nor   can   it  seem
          improbable,  that the  first  artists,  in  their  rude  and
          ambitious efforts, should  have transgressed the standard of
          moderation.  A Turkish  cannon,  more  enormous than that of
          Mahomet, still guards  the  entrance of the Dardanelles; and
          if the use  be  inconvenient,  it  has  been found on a late
          trial that the  effect  was  far  from contemptible. A stone
          bullet of eleven  hundred pounds' weight was once discharged
          with three hundred  and  thirty  pounds  of  powder:  at the
          distance of six  hundred  yards it shivered into three rocky
          fragments; traversed the strait; and leaving the waters in a
          foam, again rose and bounded against the opposite hill. (26)

  
          While Mahomet threatened  the capital of the East, the Greek
          emperor implored with  fervent  prayers  the  assistance  of
          earth and heaven.  But the invisible powers were deaf to his
          supplications; and Christendom  beheld with indifference the
          fall of Constantinople,  while  she  derived  at  least some
          promise of supply  from  the  jealous and temporal policy of
          the sultan of  Egypt.  Some states were too weak, and others
          too remote; by  some  the danger was considered as imaginary
          by others as  inevitable:  the Western princes were involved
          in  their endless  and  domestic  quarrels;  and  the  Roman
          pontiff was exasperated by the falsehood or obstinacy of the
          Greeks.  Instead of  employing  in  their favor the arms and
          treasures of Italy,  Nicholas  the  Fifth had foretold their
          approaching  ruin;  and   his   honor  was  engaged  in  the
          accomplishment of his  prophecy.  (G) Perhaps he was softened
          by the last  extremity  o their distress; but his compassion
          was  tardy; his  efforts  were  faint  and  unavailing;  and
          Constantinople had fallen, before the squadrons of Genoa and
          Venice could sail  from  their harbors. (27) Even the princes
          of the Morea  and  of  the  Greek  islands  affected  a cold
          neutrality:  the  Genoese  colony  of  Galata  negotiated  a
          private treaty; and the sultan indulged them in the delusive
          hope, that by  his  clemency  they might survive the ruin of
          the empire. A  plebeian  crowd,  and  some  Byzantine nobles
          basely withdrew from  the  danger  of their country; and the
          avarice of the rich denied the emperor, and reserved for the
          Turks, the secret treasures which might have raised in their
          defence whole armies  of  mercenaries.  (28) The indigent and
          solitary prince prepared, however, to sustain his formidable
          adversary; but if  his  courage were equal to the peril, his
          strength was inadequate to the contest.  In the beginning of
          the  spring,  the  Turkish  vanguard  swept  the  towns  and
          villages as far  as  the gates of Constantinople: submission
          was spared and  protected;  whatever  presumed to resist was
          exterminated with fire  and  sword.  The Greek places on the
          Black Sea, Mesembria,  Acheloum,  and  Bizon, surrendered on
          the first summons;  Selybria  alone deserved the honors of a
          siege or blockade; and the bold inhabitants, while they were
          invested  by  land,   launched  their  boats,  pillaged  the
          opposite coast of  Cyzicus,  and  sold their captives in the
          public market.  But  on  the approach of Mahomet himself all
          was silent and prostrate: he first halted at the distance of
          five miles; and  from  thence  advancing  in  battle  array,
          planted  before  the  gates  of  St.  Romanus  the  Imperial
          standard; and on the sixth day of April formed the memorable
          siege of Constantinople.

  
          The troops of Asia and Europe extended on the right and left
          from the Propontis  to  the  harbor;  the  Janizaries in the
          front were stationed  before  the sultan's tent; the Ottoman
          line was covered  by  a deep intrenchment; and a subordinate
          army enclosed the suburb of Galata, and watched the doubtful
          faith  of the  Genoese.   The  inquisitive  Philelphus,  who
          resided in Greece  about  thirty  years before the siege, is
          confident, that all  the Turkish forces of any name or value
          could not exceed  the  number  of  sixty  thousand horse and
          twenty thousand foot;  and  he upbraids the pusillanimity of
          the  nations,  who  had  tamely  yielded  to  a  handful  of
          Barbarians.  Such indeed  might be the regular establishment
          of the Capiculi,  (29)  the  troops  of the Porte who marched
          with the prince,  and were paid from his royal treasury. But
          the bashaws, in  their respective governments, maintained or
          levied a provincial  militia;  many  lands  were  held  by a
          military tenure; many  volunteers were attracted by the hope
          of spoil and  the  sound of the holy trumpet invited a swarm
          of hungry and  fearless  fanatics,  who  might contribute at
          least to multiply  the  terrors,  and  in  a first attack to
          blunt the swords,  of the Christians.  The whole mass of the
          Turkish powers is  magnified  by  Ducas,  Chalcondyles,  and
          Leonard of Chios,  to  the  amount  of three or four hundred
          thousand  men; but  Phranza  was  a  less  remote  and  more
          accurate judge; and  his  precise  definition of two hundred
          and fifty-eight thousand  does  not  exceed  the  measure of
          experience and probability.  (30)  The  navy of the besiegers
          was less formidable: the Propontis was overspread with three
          hundred and twenty  sail; but of these no more than eighteen
          could be rated  as  galleys of war; and the far greater part
          must  be  degraded  to  the  condition  of  store-ships  and
          transports, which poured  into  the  camp  fresh supplies of
          men,  ammunition,  and   provisions.   In  her  last  decay,
          Constantinople was still  peopled  with  more than a hundred
          thousand inhabitants; but  these  numbers  are  found in the
          accounts, not of  war,  but  of  captivity;  and they mostly
          consisted of mechanics,  of  priests,  of  women, and of men
          devoid  of that  spirit  which  even  women  have  sometimes
          exerted for the  common  safety.   I  can  suppose,  I could
          almost excuse, the  reluctance  of  subjects  to  serve on a
          distant frontier, at  the  will of a tyrant; but the man who
          dares not expose his life in the defence of his children and
          his property, has  lost in society the first and most active
          energies of nature.   By the emperor's command, a particular
          inquiry had been  made  through  the streets and houses, how
          many of the  citizens,  or  even of the monks, were able and
          willing to bear  arms  for  their  country.   The lists were
          intrusted to Phranza; (31) and, after a diligent addition, he
          informed his master,  with  grief  and  surprise,  that  the
          national defence was  reduced  to four thousand nine hundred
          and seventy Romans.   Between  Constantine  and his faithful
          minister  this  comfortless  secret  was  preserved;  and  a
          sufficient proportion of  shields,  cross-bows, and muskets,
          were distributed from  the  arsenal  to the city bands. They
          derived  some  accession   from   a  body  of  two  thousand
          strangers, under the  command  of  John  Justiniani, a noble
          Genoese;  a  liberal   donative   was   advanced   to  these
          auxiliaries; and a  princely recompense, the Isle of Lemnos,
          was promised to  the  valor  and  victory of their chief.  A
          strong chain was  drawn  across  the mouth of the harbor: it
          was supported by  some  Greek and Italian vessels of war and
          merchandise; and the  ships  of every Christian nation, that
          successively arrived from  Candia  and  the  Black Sea, were
          detained for the  public service.  Against the powers of the
          Ottoman empire, a city of the extent of thirteen, perhaps of
          sixteen, miles was defended by a scanty garrison of seven or
          eight thousand soldiers.   Europe  and Asia were open to the
          besiegers; but the  strength  and  provisions  of the Greeks
          must sustain a  daily  decrease;  nor could they indulge the
          expectation of any foreign succor or supply.

  
          The primitive Romans  would  have  drawn their swords in the
          resolution of death  or  conquest.  The primitive Christians
          might have embraced  each other, and awaited in patience and
          charity  the  stroke   of  martyrdom.   But  the  Greeks  of
          Constantinople were animated only by the spirit of religion,
          and  that  spirit  was  productive  only  of  animosity  and
          discord.  Before his death, the emperor John Palaeologus had
          renounced the unpopular  measure of a union with the Latins;
          nor was the  idea  revived, till the distress of his brother
          Constantine  imposed  a   last   trial   of   flattery   and
          dissimulation. (32) With  the  demand  of  temporal  aid, his
          ambassadors  were instructed  to  mingle  the  assurance  of
          spiritual obedience: his  neglect  of the church was excused
          by the urgent  cares  of  the state; and his orthodox wishes
          solicited the presence  of  a Roman legate.  The Vatican had
          been too often  deluded;  yet  the signs of repentance could
          not decently be overlooked; a legate was more easily granted
          than  an  army;  and  about  six  months  before  the  final
          destruction, the cardinal Isidore of Russia appeared in that
          character with a  retinue  of  priests  and  soldiers.   The
          emperor saluted him  as  a  friend  and father; respectfully
          listened to his  public  and  private  sermons; and with the
          most obsequious of  the clergy and laymen subscribed the act
          of  union, as  it  had  been  ratified  in  the  council  of
          Florence.  On the  twelfth  of December, the two nations, in
          the  church of  St.  Sophia,  joined  in  the  communion  of
          sacrifice and prayer; and the names of the two pontiffs were
          solemnly commemorated; the  names of Nicholas the Fifth, the
          vicar of Christ,  and of the patriarch Gregory, who had been
          driven into exile by a rebellious people.

  
          But  the  dress   and  language  of  the  Latin  priest  who
          officiated at the  altar  were  an object of scandal; and it
          was observed with  horror,  that  he  consecrated  a cake or
          wafer of unleavened  bread,  and  poured cold water into the
          cup of the  sacrament.   A  national  historian acknowledges
          with a blush,  that  none of his countrymen, not the emperor
          himself, were sincere  in  this  occasional  conformity. (33)
          Their hasty and  unconditional submission was palliated by a
          promise of future  revisal;  but  the best, or the worst, of
          their excuses was the confession of their own perjury.  When
          they  were  pressed   by  the  reproaches  of  their  honest
          brethren, "Have patience,"  they  whispered,  "have patience
          till God shall have delivered the city from the great dragon
          who seeks to  devour us.  You shall then perceive whether we
          are truly reconciled with the Azymites." But patience is not
          the attribute of  zeal;  nor  can  the  arts  of  a court be
          adapted to the  freedom  and violence of popular enthusiasm.
          From the dome  of  St. Sophia the inhabitants of either sex,
          and of every  degree,  rushed  in  crowds to the cell of the
          monk Gennadius, (34)  to  consult  the  oracle of the church.
          The holy man was invisible; entranced, as it should seem, in
          deep meditation, or  divine  rapture:  but he had exposed on
          the  door  of   his   cell   a  speaking  tablet;  and  they
          successively withdrew, after reading those tremendous words:
          "O miserable Romans, why will ye abandon the truth? and why,
          instead of confiding  in  God, will ye put your trust in the
          Italians? In losing  your  faith  you  will  lose your city.
          Have mercy on  me,  O Lord! I protest in thy presence that I
          am innocent of  the  crime.   O  miserable Romans, consider,
          pause, and repent.  At the same moment that you renounce the
          religion of your  fathers,  by embracing impiety, you submit
          to  a  foreign   servitude."  According  to  the  advice  of
          Gennadius, the religious  virgins, as pure as angels, and as
          proud as daemons, rejected the act of union, and abjured all
          communion with the  present  and  future  associates  of the
          Latins; and their  example was applauded and imitated by the
          greatest part of the clergy and people.  From the monastery,
          the devout Greeks dispersed themselves in the taverns; drank
          confusion to the  slaves  of the pope; emptied their glasses
          in honor of  the  image of the holy Virgin; and besought her
          to defend against  Mahomet  the  city which she had formerly
          saved  from  Chosroes   and   the  Chagan.   In  the  double
          intoxication of zeal  and  wine,  they  valiantly exclaimed,
          "What occasion have  we for succor, or union, or Latins? Far
          from us be  the  worship of the Azymites!" During the winter
          that  preceded  the   Turkish   conquest,   the  nation  was
          distracted by this  epidemical  frenzy;  and  the  season of
          Lent, the approach  of  Easter, instead of breathing charity
          and love, served only to fortify the obstinacy and influence
          of the zealots.   The confessors scrutinized and alarmed the
          conscience of their  votaries,  and  a  rigorous penance was
          imposed on those  who  had  received  the  communion  from a
          priest who had  given  an  express  or  tacit consent to the
          union.  His service at the altar propagated the infection to
          the  mute  and  simple  spectators  of  the  ceremony:  they
          forfeited,  by the  impure  spectacle,  the  virtue  of  the
          sacerdotal character; nor  was  it lawful, even in danger of
          sudden death, to  invoke  the assistance of their prayers or
          absolution.  No sooner  had  the  church  of St. Sophia been
          polluted by the  Latin  sacrifice, than it was deserted as a
          Jewish synagogue, or  a  heathen  temple,  by the clergy and
          people; and a  vast  and  gloomy  silence  prevailed in that
          venerable dome, which  had  so  often smoked with a cloud of
          incense, blazed with  innumerable lights, and resounded with
          the voice of  prayer  and  thanksgiving. The Latins were the
          most odious of heretics and infidels; and the first minister
          of the empire, the great duke, was heard to declare, that he
          had rather behold  in  Constantinople the turban of Mahomet,
          than the pope's  tiara  or a cardinal's hat. (35) A sentiment
          so unworthy of  Christians  and  patriots  was  familiar and
          fatal  to the  Greeks:  the  emperor  was  deprived  of  the
          affection and support  of  his  subjects;  and  their native
          cowardice  was  sanctified  by  resignation  to  the  divine
          decree, or the visionary hope of a miraculous deliverance.

  
          Of the triangle which composes the figure of Constantinople,
          the two sides  along  the  sea  were made inaccessible to an
          enemy; the Propontis  by  nature,  and  the  harbor  by art.
          Between the two  waters, the basis of the triangle, the land
          side was protected by a double wall, and a deep ditch of the
          depth  of  one   hundred   feet.    Against   this  line  of
          fortification, which Phranza,  an  eye-witness,  prolongs to
          the measure of  six  miles,  (36) the Ottomans directed their
          principal attack; and  the  emperor,  after distributing the
          service and command of the most perilous stations, undertook
          the defence of  the external wall.  In the first days of the
          siege  the Greek  soldiers  descended  into  the  ditch,  or
          sallied into the  field;  but they soon discovered, that, in
          the proportion of  their  numbers, one Christian was of more
          value than twenty  Turks:  and,  after  these bold preludes,
          they were prudently  content  to  maintain  the rampart with
          their missile weapons.   Nor should this prudence be accused
          of pusillanimity.  The  nation  was indeed pusillanimous and
          base; but the  last Constantine deserves the name of a hero:
          his noble band of volunteers was inspired with Roman virtue;
          and the foreign  auxiliaries  supported  the  honor  of  the
          Western  chivalry.  The  incessant  volleys  of  lances  and
          arrows were accompanied  with  the smoke, the sound, and the
          fire,  of their  musketry  and  cannon.   Their  small  arms
          discharged at the  same time either five, or even ten, balls
          of lead, of  the  size  of  a  walnut; and, according to the
          closeness of the  ranks and the force of the powder, several
          breastplates and bodies  were transpierced by the same shot.
          But the Turkish  approaches  were  soon sunk in trenches, or
          covered with ruins.   Each  day  added to the science of the
          Christians; but their  inadequate  stock  of  gunpowder  was
          wasted in the operations of each day. Their ordnance was not
          powerful, either in  size  or  number; and if they possessed
          some heavy cannon,  they  feared to plant them on the walls,
          lest the aged  structure  should be shaken and overthrown by
          the explosion. (37)  The  same  destructive  secret  had been
          revealed to the  Moslems;  by  whom it was employed with the
          superior energy of  zeal,  riches, and despotism.  The great
          cannon of Mahomet  has been separately noticed; an important
          and visible object  in  the  history  of the times: but that
          enormous engine was  flanked  by two fellows almost of equal
          magnitude: (38) the  long  order of the Turkish artillery was
          pointed against the  walls;  fourteen batteries thundered at
          once on the  most  accessible places; and of one of these it
          is ambiguously expressed,  that  it  was  mounted  with  one
          hundred and thirty  guns,  or that it discharged one hundred
          and thirty bullets.   Yet  in  the power and activity of the
          sultan, we may discern the infancy of the new science. Under
          a master who  counted the moments, the great cannon could be
          loaded and fired  no  more  than seven times in one day. (39)
          The heated metal  unfortunately  burst; several workmen were
          destroyed; and the  skill  of  an  artist (H) was admired who
          bethought himself of preventing the danger and the accident,
          by pouring oil,  after each explosion, into the mouth of the
          cannon.

  
          The generosity of  the Christian princes was cold and tardy;
          but in the  first  apprehension  of a siege, Constantine had
          negotiated, in the  isles of the Archipelago, the Morea, and
          Sicily, the most  indispensable  supplies.   As early as the
          beginning of April,  five  (42)  great  ships,  equipped  for
          merchandise and war,  would  have  sailed from the harbor of
          Chios, had not  the  wind  blown obstinately from the north.
          (43) One of these ships bore the Imperial flag; the remaining
          four belonged to the Genoese; and they were laden with wheat
          and barley, with  wine, oil, and vegetables, and, above all,
          with soldiers and  mariners  for the service of the capital.
          After a tedious  delay,  a gentle breeze, and, on the second
          day, a strong  gale from the south, carried them through the
          Hellespont and the  Propontis:  but  the  city  was  already
          invested by sea  and  land;  and  the  Turkish fleet, at the
          entrance of the  Bosphorus,  was  stretched  from  shore  to
          shore, in the  form of a crescent, to intercept, or at least
          to  repel, these  bold  auxiliaries.   The  reader  who  has
          present   to  his   mind   the   geographical   picture   of
          Constantinople, will conceive  and  admire  the greatness of
          the  spectacle.   The  five  Christian  ships  continued  to
          advance with joyful  shouts,  and a full press both of sails
          and oars, against  a hostile fleet of three hundred vessels;
          and the rampart,  the  camp,  the coasts of Europe and Asia,
          were  lined  with   innumerable  spectators,  who  anxiously
          awaited the event  of  this  momentous succor.  At the first
          view that event  could  not appear doubtful; the superiority
          of the Moslems  was beyond all measure or account: and, in a
          calm,  their  numbers   and   valor   must  inevitably  have
          prevailed. But their  hasty  and  imperfect  navy  had  been
          created, not by the genius of the people, but by the will of
          the sultan: in  the  height  of  their prosperity, the Turks
          have acknowledged, that  if God had given them the earth, he
          had left the  sea  to  the  infidels;  (44)  and  a series of
          defeats, a rapid  progress  of  decay,  has  established the
          truth of their modest confession. Except eighteen galleys of
          some force, the rest of their fleet consisted of open boats,
          rudely  constructed  and  awkwardly  managed,  crowded  with
          troops, and destitute of cannon; and since courage arises in
          a great measure  from  the  consciousness  of  strength, the
          bravest of the  Janizaries  might  tremble on a new element.
          In the Christian  squadron,  five stout and lofty ships were
          guided by skilful  pilots,  and  manned with the veterans of
          Italy and Greece,  long  practised in the arts and perils of
          the sea.  Their  weight  was directed to sink or scatter the
          weak obstacles that  impeded  their passage: their artillery
          swept the waters:  their liquid fire was poured on the heads
          of  the adversaries,  who,  with  the  design  of  boarding,
          presumed to approach  them;  and  the  winds  and  waves are
          always on the  side  of  the  ablest  navigators.   In  this
          conflict,  the  Imperial   vessel,  which  had  been  almost
          overpowered, was rescued by the Genoese; but the Turks, in a
          distant  and  closer   attack,   were  twice  repulsed  with
          considerable loss.  Mahomet  himself sat on horseback on the
          beach to encourage their valor by his voice and presence, by
          the promise of reward, and by fear more potent than the fear
          of the enemy.   The  passions  of  his  soul,  and  even the
          gestures of his  body,  (45) seemed to imitate the actions of
          the combatants; and,  as  if he had been the lord of nature,
          he spurred his  horse  with  a  fearless and impotent effort
          into the sea.   His  loud reproaches, and the clamors of the
          camp, urged the  Ottomans  to a third attack, more fatal and
          bloody than the  two  former;  and  I  must repeat, though I
          cannot credit, the  evidence  of  Phranza, who affirms, from
          their own mouth, that they lost above twelve thousand men in
          the slaughter of  the  day.  They  fled  in  disorder to the
          shores of Europe  and  Asia,  while  the Christian squadron,
          triumphant and unhurt,  steered  along  the  Bosphorus,  and
          securely anchored within  the  chain  of  the harbor. In the
          confidence of victory,  they  boasted that the whole Turkish
          power must have  yielded  to their arms; but the admiral, or
          captain bashaw, found  some  consolation for a painful wound
          in his eye,  by  representing  that accident as the cause of
          his defeat.  Balthi  Ogli  was a renegade of the race of the
          Bulgarian princes: his  military  character was tainted with
          the unpopular vice  of  avarice;  and under the despotism of
          the prince or people, misfortune is a sufficient evidence of
          guilt. (I) His  rank  and  services  were  annihilated by the
          displeasure of Mahomet.   In the royal presence, the captain
          bashaw was extended  on  the  ground  by  four  slaves,  and
          received one hundred  strokes  with  a  golden  rod: (46) his
          death had been pronounced; and he adored the clemency of the
          sultan, who was  satisfied  with  the  milder  punishment of
          confiscation and exile.   The  introduction  of  this supply
          revived the hopes  of the Greeks, and accused the supineness
          of their Western allies.  Amidst the deserts of Anatolia and
          the rocks of  Palestine,  the  millions  of the crusades had
          buried themselves in  a  voluntary and inevitable grave; but
          the situation of  the  Imperial  city was strong against her
          enemies, and accessible  to  her friends; and a rational and
          moderate armament of  the marine states might have saved the
          relics  of  the  Roman  name,  and  maintained  a  Christian
          fortress in the  heart  of the Ottoman empire.  Yet this was
          the  sole  and   feeble   attempt  for  the  deliverance  of
          Constantinople: the more  distant  powers were insensible of
          its danger; and  the  ambassador  of Hungary, or at least of
          Huniades, resided in  the Turkish camp, to remove the fears,
          and to direct the operations, of the sultan. (47)

  
          According to Ducas, one of the Afabi beat out his eye with a
          stone Compare Von Hammer. - M.]

  
          It was difficult  for  the Greeks to penetrate the secret of
          the divan; yet  the  Greeks are persuaded, that a resistance
          so obstinate and  surprising,  had fatigued the perseverance
          of Mahomet.  He  began  to meditate a retreat; and the siege
          would  have  been  speedily  raised,  if  the  ambition  and
          jealousy of the second vizier had not opposed the perfidious
          advice  of Calil  Bashaw,  who  still  maintained  a  secret
          correspondence with the  Byzantine  court.  The reduction of
          the city appeared  to  be  hopeless,  unless a double attack
          could be made  from the harbor as well as from the land; but
          the harbor was  inaccessible:  an impenetrable chain was now
          defended by eight large ships, more than twenty of a smaller
          size, with several  galleys  and  sloops;  and,  instead  of
          forcing this barrier,  the  Turks  might  apprehend  a naval
          sally, and a  second  encounter  in  the  open sea.  In this
          perplexity, the genius  of  Mahomet conceived and executed a
          plan of a  bold and marvellous cast, of transporting by land
          his lighter vessels  and  military stores from the Bosphorus
          into the higher  part  of the harbor.  The distance is about
          ten (J) miles;  the ground is uneven, and was overspread with
          thickets; and, as  the road must be opened behind the suburb
          of Galata, their  free  passage  or  total  destruction must
          depend on the  option  of  the  Genoese.   But these selfish
          merchants were ambitious  of  the  favor  of  being the last
          devoured; and the  deficiency  of  art  was  supplied by the
          strength of obedient  myraids.  A level way was covered with
          a broad platform  of  strong and solid planks; and to render
          them more slippery  and  smooth, they were anointed with the
          fat  of  sheep   and  oxen.   Fourscore  light  galleys  and
          brigantines, of fifty  and  thirty oars, were disembarked on
          the Bosphorus shore;  arranged  successively on rollers; and
          drawn forwards by  the  power of men and pulleys. Two guides
          or pilots were  stationed at the helm, and the prow, of each
          vessel: the sails  were unfurled to the winds; and the labor
          was cheered by  song  and  acclamation.   In the course of a
          single night, this Turkish fleet painfully climbed the hill,
          steered over the  plain, and was launched from the declivity
          into  the shallow  waters  of  the  harbor,  far  above  the
          molestation of the  deeper  vessels of the Greeks.  The real
          importance  of  this   operation   was   magnified   by  the
          consternation and confidence  which  it  inspired:  but  the
          notorious,  unquestionable fact  was  displayed  before  the
          eyes, and is recorded by the pens, of the two nations. (48) A
          similar  stratagem had  been  repeatedly  practised  by  the
          ancients; (49) the  Ottoman  galleys  (I  must  again repeat)
          should be considered  as large boats; and, if we compare the
          magnitude and the distance, the obstacles and the means, the
          boasted  miracle  (50)  has  perhaps  been  equalled  by  the
          industry of our  own  times.  (51)  As  soon  as  Mahomet had
          occupied  the  upper  harbor  with  a  fleet  and  army,  he
          constructed, in the  narrowest  part,  a  bridge,  or rather
          mole, of fifty cubits in breadth, and one hundred in length:
          it was formed  of  casks and hogsheads; joined with rafters,
          linked with iron,  and  covered with a solid floor.  On this
          floating battery he planted one of his largest cannon, while
          the fourscore galleys,  with  troops  and  scaling  ladders,
          approached the most accessible side, which had formerly been
          stormed by the  Latin  conquerors.   The  indolence  of  the
          Christians  has  been   accused  for  not  destroying  these
          unfinished works; (K) but their fire, by a superior fire, was
          controlled  and  silenced;   nor  were  they  wanting  in  a
          nocturnal attempt to  burn the vessels as well as the bridge
          of the sultan. His vigilance prevented their approach; their
          foremost galiots were  sunk  or  taken;  forty  youths,  the
          bravest of Italy and Greece, were inhumanly massacred at his
          command; nor could  the  emperor's  grief be assuaged by the
          just though cruel  retaliation,  of  exposing from the walls
          the heads of  two  hundred  and  sixty  Mussulman  captives.
          After a siege  of  forty  days,  the  fate of Constantinople
          could no longer  be  averted.   The  diminutive garrison was
          exhausted by a  double attack: the fortifications, which had
          stood for ages  against hostile violence, were dismantled on
          all sides by  the Ottoman cannon: many breaches were opened;
          and near the  gate  of  St.  Romanus,  four  towers had been
          levelled with the ground.  For the payment of his feeble and
          mutinous troops, Constantine  was  compelled  to despoil the
          churches with the promise of a fourfold restitution; and his
          sacrilege offered a  new  reproach  to  the  enemies  of the
          union.  A spirit  of  discord  impaired  the  remnant of the
          Christian strength; the  Genoese  and  Venetian  auxiliaries
          asserted the preeminence  of  their  respective service; and
          Justiniani  and the  great  duke,  whose  ambition  was  not
          extinguished by the  common  danger,  accused  each other of
          treachery and cowardice.

  
          During the siege  of  Constantinople, the words of peace and
          capitulation  had been  sometimes  pronounced;  and  several
          embassies had passed  between the camp and the city. (52) The
          Greek emperor was  humbled  by  adversity;  and  would  have
          yielded to any  terms  compatible with religion and royalty.
          The Turkish sultan  was desirous of sparing the blood of his
          soldiers; still more  desirous  of  securing for his own use
          the Byzantine treasures:  and  he accomplished a sacred duty
          in presenting to  the Gabours the choice of circumcision, of
          tribute, or of death. The avarice of Mahomet might have been
          satisfied with an annual sum of one hundred thousand ducats;
          but his ambition  grasped  the  capital  of the East: to the
          prince he offered  a  rich  equivalent, to the people a free
          toleration, or a  safe  departure:  but after some fruitless
          treaty, he declared  his  resolution  of  finding  either  a
          throne, or a  grave,  under  the  walls of Constantinople. A
          sense of honor,  and the fear of universal reproach, forbade
          Palaeologus  to resign  the  city  into  the  hands  of  the
          Ottomans; and he determined to abide the last extremities of
          war.  Several days  were  employed  by  the  sultan  in  the
          preparations of the  assault;  and  a respite was granted by
          his favorite science  of  astrology,  which had fixed on the
          twenty-ninth of May,  as  the  fortunate and fatal hour.  On
          the evening of  the  twenty-seventh,  he  issued  his  final
          orders; assembled in  his  presence the military chiefs, and
          dispersed his heralds through the camp to proclaim the duty,
          and the motives,  of  the  perilous  enterprise. Fear is the
          first principle of  a  despotic  government; and his menaces
          were expressed in the Oriental style, that the fugitives and
          deserters, had they  the  wings  of  a  bird, (53) should not
          escape from his  inexorable  justice.   The greatest part of
          his bashaws and  Janizaries  were the offspring of Christian
          parents:  but  the   glories   of   the  Turkish  name  were
          perpetuated  by successive  adoption;  and  in  the  gradual
          change of individuals,  the  spirit of a legion, a regiment,
          or an oda,  is  kept  alive by imitation and discipline.  In
          this holy warfare, the Moslems were exhorted to purify their
          minds with prayer, their bodies with seven ablutions; and to
          abstain from food till the close of the ensuing day. A crowd
          of dervises visited  the  tents,  to  instil  the  desire of
          martyrdom, and the  assurance  of spending an immortal youth
          amidst the rivers  and  gardens  of  paradise,  and  in  the
          embraces of the black-eyed virgins.  Yet Mahomet principally
          trusted to the  efficacy of temporal and visible rewards.  A
          double pay was  promised to the victorious troops: "The city
          and the buildings," said Mahomet, "are mine; but I resign to
          your valor the captives and the spoil, the treasures of gold
          and beauty; be rich and be happy.  Many are the provinces of
          my empire: the  intrepid soldier who first ascends the walls
          of Constantinople shall  be  rewarded with the government of
          the  fairest  and  most  wealthy;  and  my  gratitude  shall
          accumulate his honors  and fortunes above the measure of his
          own hopes." Such  various  and potent motives diffused among
          the Turks a  general ardor, regardless of life and impatient
          for action: the camp reechoed with the Moslem shouts of "God
          is God: there  is but one God, and Mahomet is the apostle of
          God;" (54) and  the  sea  and  land, from Galata to the seven
          towers, were illuminated  by  the  blaze  of their nocturnal
          fires. (L)

  
          Far different was  the  state  of  the Christians; who, with
          loud and impotent  complaints,  deplored  the  guilt, or the
          punishment, of their sins. The celestial image of the Virgin
          had been exposed  in  solemn  procession;  but  their divine
          patroness was deaf  to  their  entreaties:  they accused the
          obstinacy of the  emperor  for  refusing a timely surrender;
          anticipated the horrors  of  their  fate; and sighed for the
          repose and security  of  Turkish  servitude.  The noblest of
          the Greeks, and  the bravest of the allies, were summoned to
          the  palace,  to   prepare  them,  on  the  evening  of  the
          twenty-eighth, for the  duties  and  dangers  of the general
          assault.  The last  speech  of  Palaeologus  was the funeral
          oration of the  Roman  empire: (55) he promised, he conjured,
          and  he vainly  attempted  to  infuse  the  hope  which  was
          extinguished  in  his  own  mind.  In  this  world  all  was
          comfortless and gloomy;  and  neither  the  gospel  nor  the
          church  have proposed  any  conspicuous  recompense  to  the
          heroes who fall  in  the  service of their country.  But the
          example of their prince, and the confinement of a siege, had
          armed these warriors  with  the  courage of despair, and the
          pathetic scene is described by the feelings of the historian
          Phranza, who was  himself present at this mournful assembly.
          They wept, they  embraced;  regardless of their families and
          fortunes, they devoted  their  lives;  and  each  commander,
          departing to his  station,  maintained  all night a vigilant
          and anxious watch  on  the  rampart.   The emperor, and some
          faithful companions, entered  the  dome of St. Sophia, which
          in a few  hours  was  to  be  converted  into  a mosque; and
          devoutly received, with  tears and prayers, the sacrament of
          the holy communion.   He reposed some moments in the palace,
          which resounded with  cries  and lamentations; solicited the
          pardon of all whom he might have injured; (56) and mounted on
          horseback to visit  the  guards,  and explore the motions of
          the enemy.  The  distress  and  fall of the last Constantine
          are more glorious  than the long prosperity of the Byzantine
          Caesars. (M)

  
          In the confusion  of  darkness,  an  assailant may sometimes
          succeed; out in  this great and general attack, the military
          judgment and astrological  knowledge  of Mahomet advised him
          to expect the  morning,  the memorable twenty- ninth of May,
          in  the  fourteen   hundred  and  fifty-third  year  of  the
          Christian aera. The  preceding  night  had  been strenuously
          employed: the troops,  the  cannons,  and the fascines, were
          advanced to the  edge  of  the  ditch,  which  in many parts
          presented a smooth  and level passage to the breach; and his
          fourscore galleys almost  touched,  with the prows and their
          scaling-ladders, the less  defensible  walls  of the harbor.
          Under pain of  death, silence was enjoined: but the physical
          laws of motion  and  sound are not obedient to discipline or
          fear; each individual  might  suppress his voice and measure
          his footsteps; but  the  march  and  labor of thousands must
          inevitably produce a strange confusion of dissonant clamors,
          which reached the  ears  of  the watchmen of the towers.  At
          daybreak, without the  customary  signal of the morning gun,
          the Turks assaulted  the  city  by  sea  and  land;  and the
          similitude of a twined or twisted thread has been applied to
          the closeness and  continuity  of  their line of attack. (57)
          The foremost ranks  consisted  of  the refuse of the host, a
          voluntary crowd who  fought without order or command; of the
          feebleness of age  or  childhood,  of peasants and vagrants,
          and of all  who  had  joined  the  camp in the blind hope of
          plunder  and  martyrdom.   The  common  impulse  drove  them
          onwards to the  wall;  the  most  audacious  to  climb  were
          instantly precipitated; and not a dart, not a bullet, of the
          Christians, was idly  wasted  on the accumulated throng. But
          their  strength  and   ammunition  were  exhausted  in  this
          laborious defence: the  ditch  was filled with the bodies of
          the slain; they supported the footsteps of their companions;
          and of this  devoted vanguard the death was more serviceable
          than the life.   Under their respective bashaws and sanjaks,
          the troops of  Anatolia and Romania were successively led to
          the charge: their  progress  was  various and doubtful; but,
          after a conflict  of two hours, the Greeks still maintained,
          and improved their  advantage;  and the voice of the emperor
          was heard, encouraging  his  soldiers  to achieve, by a last
          effort, the deliverance  of  their  country.   In that fatal
          moment,  the  Janizaries   arose,   fresh,   vigorous,   and
          invincible. The sultan  himself  on  horseback, with an iron
          mace in his  hand,  was  the  spectator  and  judge of their
          valor: he was  surrounded  by  ten  thousand of his domestic
          troops, whom he  reserved for the decisive occasion; and the
          tide of battle  was  directed  and impelled by his voice and
          eye.  His numerous  ministers  of justice were posted behind
          the line, to urge, to restrain, and to punish; and if danger
          was in the  front,  shame  and  inevitable death were in the
          rear, of the  fugitives.  The cries of fear and of pain were
          drowned  in  the  martial  music  of  drums,  trumpets,  and
          attaballs; and experience  has  proved,  that the mechanical
          operation of sounds,  by  quickening  the circulation of the
          blood and spirits,  will  act  on  the  human  machine  more
          forcibly than the  eloquence  of reason and honor.  From the
          lines, the galleys,  and  the  bridge, the Ottoman artillery
          thundered on all  sides;  and  the camp and city, the Greeks
          and the Turks, were involved in a cloud of smoke which could
          only be dispelled by the final deliverance or destruction of
          the Roman empire.   The  single  combats  of  the  heroes of
          history or fable  amuse our fancy and engage our affections:
          the skilful evolutions  of  war  may  inform  the  mind, and
          improve a necessary, though pernicious, science.  But in the
          uniform and odious  pictures  of  a  general assault, all is
          blood, and horror,  and confusion nor shall I strive, at the
          distance  of three  centuries,  and  a  thousand  miles,  to
          delineate a scene of which there could be no spectators, and
          of which the actors themselves were incapable of forming any
          just or adequate idea.

  
          The immediate loss  of Constantinople may be ascribed to the
          bullet,  or  arrow,  which  pierced  the  gauntlet  of  John
          Justiniani.  The sight of his blood, and the exquisite pain,
          appalled the courage  of  the chief, whose arms and counsels
          were the firmest  rampart  of the city.  As he withdrew from
          his station in  quest of a surgeon, his flight was perceived
          and stopped by  the  indefatigable  emperor.   "Your wound,"
          exclaimed Palaeologus, "is  slight;  the danger is pressing:
          your presence is  necessary; and whither will you retire?" -
          "I will retire,"  said  the  trembling Genoese, "by the same
          road which God  has opened to the Turks;" and at these words
          he hastily passed  through  one of the breaches of the inner
          wall.

  
          By  this pusillanimous  act  he  stained  the  honors  of  a
          military life; and the few days which he survived in Galata,
          or the Isle  of  Chios,  were  embittered by his own and the
          public  reproach.  (58)  His  example  was  imitated  by  the
          greatest part of  the  Latin  auxiliaries,  and  the defence
          began to slacken  when the attack was pressed with redoubled
          vigor.  The number  of  the  Ottomans  was  fifty, perhaps a
          hundred, times superior  to  that  of  the  Christians;  the
          double walls were  reduced by the cannon to a heap of ruins:
          in a circuit  of  several  miles,  some places must be found
          more easy of  access,  or  more  feebly  guarded; and if the
          besiegers could penetrate  in a single point, the whole city
          was irrecoverably lost.  The first who deserved the sultan's
          reward was Hassan  the  Janizary,  of  gigantic  stature and
          strength.  With his  cimeter  in one hand and his buckler in
          the other, he  ascended  the  outward  fortification: of the
          thirty Janizaries, who  were  emulous of his valor, eighteen
          perished in the  bold  adventure.   Hassan  and  his  twelve
          companions  had  reached   the   summit:   the   giant   was
          precipitated from the  rampart: he rose on one knee, and was
          again oppressed by  a  shower  of darts and stones.  But his
          success had proved  that  the  achievement was possible: the
          walls and towers  were  instantly  covered  with  a swarm of
          Turks; and the  Greeks,  now driven from the vantage ground,
          were overwhelmed by  increasing  multitudes.   Amidst  these
          multitudes, the emperor, (59) who accomplished all the duties
          of a general  and a soldier, was long seen and finally lost.
          The nobles, who  fought  round  his  person, sustained, till
          their last breath,  the  honorable  names of Palaeologus and
          Cantacuzene: his mournful  exclamation  was  heard,  "Cannot
          there be found  a Christian to cut off my head?" (60) and his
          last fear was  that  of  falling alive into the hands of the
          infidels. (61) The  prudent  despair of Constantine cast away
          the purple: amidst  the  tumult  he fell by an unknown hand,
          and his body  was  buried  under  a  mountain  of the slain.
          After his death,  resistance  and  order  were  no more: the
          Greeks fled towards  the  city;  and  many  were pressed and
          stifled in the  narrow pass of the gate of St. Romanus.  The
          victorious Turks rushed  through  the  breaches of the inner
          wall; and as  they advanced into the streets, they were soon
          joined by their  brethren, who had forced the gate Phenar on
          the side of  the  harbor.  (62)  In  the  first  heat  of the
          pursuit, about two  thousand  Christians  were  put  to  the
          sword; but avarice  soon  prevailed  over  cruelty;  and the
          victors  acknowledged, that  they  should  immediately  have
          given quarter if  the  valor  of  the emperor and his chosen
          bands had not  prepared  them  for  a  similar opposition in
          every part of  the  capital.   It was thus, after a siege of
          fifty-three days, that  Constantinople, which had defied the
          power  of  Chosroes,   the  Chagan,  and  the  caliphs,  was
          irretrievably subdued by  the  arms  of  Mahomet the Second.
          Her empire only  had  been  subverted  by  the  Latins:  her
          religion was trampled  in the dust by the Moslem conquerors.
          (63)

  
          The tidings of  misfortune  fly  with a rapid wing; yet such
          was the extent  of  Constantinople,  that  the  more distant
          quarters might prolong, some moments, the happy ignorance of
          their ruin. (64)  But  in  the  general consternation, in the
          feelings of selfish  or  social  anxiety,  in the tumult and
          thunder of the  assault,  a  sleepless  night and morning (N)
          must have elapsed;  nor  can  I  believe  that  many Grecian
          ladies were awakened  by  the  Janizaries  from  a sound and
          tranquil slumber.  On  the assurance of the public calamity,
          the houses and  convents  were  instantly  deserted; and the
          trembling inhabitants flocked  together in the streets, like
          a herd of timid animals, as if accumulated weakness could be
          productive of strength,  or  in the vain hope, that amid the
          crowd each individual  might  be  safe  and  invisible. From
          every part of  the  capital,  they flowed into the church of
          St. Sophia: in  the  space  of  an  hour, the sanctuary, the
          choir, the nave,  the upper and lower galleries, were filled
          with the multitudes  of  fathers  and husbands, of women and
          children, of priests,  monks,  and  religious  virgins:  the
          doors were barred  on the inside, and they sought protection
          from the sacred dome, which they had so lately abhorred as a
          profane and polluted  edifice.  Their confidence was founded
          on the prophecy  of  an enthusiast or impostor; that one day
          the Turks would  enter Constantinople, and pursue the Romans
          as far as the column of Constantine in the square before St.
          Sophia: but that this would be the term of their calamities:
          that an angel would descend from heaven, with a sword in his
          hand, and would  deliver  the  empire,  with  that celestial
          weapon, to a  poor  man  seated  at  the foot of the column.
          "Take this sword,"  would  he say, "and avenge the people of
          the  Lord."  At  these  animating  words,  the  Turks  would
          instantly fly, and  the  victorious  Romans would drive them
          from the West, and from all Anatolia as far as the frontiers
          of Persia.  It  is  on  this  occasion that Ducas, with some
          fancy and much  truth, upbraids the discord and obstinacy of
          the  Greeks.   "Had   that  angel  appeared,"  exclaims  the
          historian, "had he  offered  to exterminate your foes if you
          would consent to  the  union of the church, even event then,
          in that fatal  moment,  you would have rejected your safety,
          or have deceived your God." (65)

  
          While they expected  the  descent  of  the  tardy angel, the
          doors were broken with axes; and as the Turks encountered no
          resistance, their bloodless hands were employed in selecting
          and  securing  the  multitude  of  their  prisoners.  Youth,
          beauty,  and  the  appearance  of  wealth,  attracted  their
          choice;  and  the   right  of  property  was  decided  among
          themselves by a prior seizure, by personal strength, and by
          the authority of  command.  In the space of an hour the male
          captives were bound with cords, the females with their veils
          and girdles. The senators were linked with their slaves; the
          prelates with the  porters of the church; and young men of a
          plebeian  class  with  noble  maids  whose  faces  had  been
          invisible to the  sun  and  their  nearest  kindred. In this
          common

  
          [footnote 65: This  lively  description  is  extracted  from
          Ducas (c. 39 (p. 291, ed. Bonn)), who, two years afterwards,
          was sent ambassador  from the prince of Lesbos to the sultan
          (c. 44). Till  Lesbos  was subdued in 1463 (Phranza, l. iii.
          c. 27), that  island must have been full of the fugitives of
          Constantinople, who delighted  to  repeat, perhaps to adorn,
          the tale of their misery. ]

  
          captivity the ranks  of society were confounded; the ties of
          nature were cut  asunder;  and  the  inexorable  soldier was
          careless of the  father's  groans,  the tears of the mother,
          and the lamentations  of  the children. The loudest in their
          wailings were the  nuns,  who  were torn from the altar with
          naked bosoms, outstretched  hands, and dishevelled hair; and
          we should piously  believe  that  few  could  be  tempted to
          prefer the vigils of the harem to those of the monastery. Of
          these unfortunate Greeks,  of  these domestic animals, whole
          strings were rudely  driven  through the streets; and as the
          conquerors  were  eager  to  return  for  more  prey,  their
          trembling pace was  quickened with menaces and blows. At the
          same hour a similar rapine was exercised in all the churches
          and monasteries, in  all the palaces and habitations, of the
          capital; nor could any place, however sacred or sequestered,
          protect the persons  or  the  property  of the Greeks. Above
          sixty thousand of  this devoted people were transported from
          the city to  the camp and fleet, exchanged or sold according
          to the caprice  or  interest of their masters, and dispersed
          in remote servitude  through  the  provinces  of the Ottoman
          empire.  Among  these   we   may   notice   some  remarkable
          characters. The historian  Phranza,  first  chamberlain  and
          principal secretary, was  involved  with  his  family in the
          common lot. After  suffering  four  months  the hardships of
          slavery, he recovered  his freedom: in the ensuing winter he
          ventured to Adrianople,  and ransomed his wife from the 'mir
          bashi', or master of the horse; but his two children, in the
          flower of youth  and  beauty, had been seized for the use of
          Mohammed himself.

  
          The daughter of  Phranza  died  in  the  seraglio, perhaps a
          virgin: his son, in the fifteenth year of his age, preferred
          death to infamy,  and  was  stabbed by the hand of the royal
          lover. (66) A  deed thus inhuman cannot surely be expiated by
          the taste and  liberality  with  which he released a Grecian
          matron and her  two daughters, on receiving a Latin ode from
          Philelphus, who had chosen a wife in that noble family.(67)

  
          The pride or  cruelty  of  Mohammed  would  have  been  most
          sensibly gratified by the capture of a Roman legate; but the
          dexterity of Cardinal  Isidore  eluded  the  search,  and he
          escaped from Galata  in  a  plebeian habit.(69) The chain and
          entrance of the  outward  harbour  was still occupied by the
          Italian ships of merchandise and war. They had signalised

  
          their valour in  the  siege:  they  embraced  the  moment of
          retreat, while the  Turkish  mariners were dissipated in the
          pillage of the city.

  
          When  they hoisted  sail,  the  beach  was  covered  with  a
          suppliant  and  lamentable   crowd;   but   the   means   of
          transportation  were  scanty,   the  Venetians  and  Genoese
          selected their countrymen;  and, notwithstanding the fairest
          promises of the  sultan, the inhabitants of Galata evacuated
          their houses, and embarked with their most precious effects.

  
          In the fall  and  the  sack  of great cities an historian is
          condemned to repeat  the  tale of uniform calamity: the same
          effects must be  produced  by  the  same  passions; and when
          those passions may  be  indulged  with  out  control, small,
          alas! is the  difference  between  civilised and savage man.
          Amidst the vague  exclamations  of  bigotry  and hatred, the
          Turks are not  accused of a wanton or immoderate effusion of
          Christian blood: but  according  to their maxims (the maxims
          of antiquity), the  lives  of the vanquished were forfeited;
          and the legitimate  reward of the conqueror was derived from
          the service, the sale, or the ransom of his captives of both
          sexes. (69) The  wealth of Constantinople had been granted by
          the sultan to  his  victorious  troops; and the rapine of an
          hour is more  productive  than the industry of years. But as
          no  regular  division   was  attempted  of  the  spoil,  the
          respective shares were  not  determined  by  merit;  and the
          rewards of valour  were  stolen away by the followers of the
          camp, who had  declined  the  toil and danger of the battle.
          The narrative of  their depredations could not afford either
          amusement or instruction:  the  total  amount,  in  the last
          poverty of the  empire,  has been valued at four millions of
          ducats; (70) and of this sum a small part was the property of
          the  Venetians,  the   Genoese,  the  Florentines,  and  the
          merchants of Ancona.   Of  these  foreigners  the  stock was
          improved ,in quick and perpetual circulation: but the riches
          of the Greeks  were  displayed  in  the  idle ostentation of
          palaces and wardrobes,  or  deeply  buried  in  treasures of
          ingots and old  coin,  lest  it  should be demanded at their
          hands for the  defence of their country. The profanation and
          plunder of the  monasteries  and  churches  excited the most
          tragic complaints. The  dome  of  St.   Sophia  itself,  the
          earthly heaven, the  second  firmament,  the  vehicle of the
          cherubim, the throne  of the glory of God, (71) was despoiled
          of the oblations  of  ages;  and  the  gold  and silver, the
          pearls and jewels,  the vases and sacerdotal ornaments, were
          most wickedly converted to the service of mankind. After the
          divine  images had  been  stripped  of  all  that  could  be
          valuable to a  profane  eye,  the  canvas,  or the wood, was
          torn, or broken, or burnt, or trod under foot,

  
          distribution to Venice,  Genoa, Florence, and Ancona, of 50,
          20,20, and 15,000  ducats,  I suspect that a figure has been
          dropped. Even with  the  restitution,  the  foreign property
          would scarcely exceed one-fourth.]

  
          or applied, in  the  stables  or  the kitchen, to the vilest
          uses. The example  of  sacrilege was imitated, however, from
          the Latin conquerors  of  Constantinople;  and the treatment
          which Christ, the  Virgin, and the saints had sustained from
          the guilty Catholic,  might  be  inflicted  by  the  zealous
          Musulman on the  monuments  of idolatry. Perhaps, instead of
          joining the public  clamour, a philosopher will observe that
          in the decline of the arts the workmanship could not be more
          valuable than the  work,  and that a fresh supply of visions
          and miracles would  speedily  be renewed by the craft of the
          priest  and the  credulity  of  the  people.  He  will  more
          seriously deplore the loss of the Byzantine libraries, which
          were destroyed or  scattered  in  the general confusion: one
          hundred and twenty  thousand  manuscripts  are  said to have
          disappeared; (72) ten volumes might be purchased for a single
          ducat; and the  same ignominious price, too high perhaps for
          a shelf of  theology,  included the whole works of Aristotle
          and  Homer, the  noblest  productions  of  the  science  and
          literature of ancient  Greece.  We may reflect with pleasure
          that an inestimable  portion  of  our  classic treasures was
          safely deposited in  Italy;  and  that  the  mechanics  of a
          German town had  invented  an art which derides the havoc of
          time and barbarism.

  
          From the first  hour  (73)  of  the memorable twenty-ninth of
          May, disorder and  rapine  prevailed  in Constantinople till
          the eighth hour  of  the  same  day, when the sultan himself
          passed in triumph  through  the  gate of St. Romanus. He was
          attended by his  vizirs,  bashaws,  and guards, each of whom
          (says  a  Byzantine   historian)  was  robust  as  Hercules,
          dexterous as Apollo,  and  equal in battle to any ten of the
          race of ordinary  mortals.  The  conqueror  (74)  gazed  with
          satisfaction  and wonder  on  the  strange  though  splendid
          appearance of the  domes and palaces, so dissimilar from the
          style  of  Oriental  architecture.  In  the  hippodrome,  or
          'atmeidan', his eye  was  attracted by the twisted column of
          the three serpents;  and,  as  a  trial  of his strength, he
          shattered with his  iron mace or battle-axe the under jaw of
          one of these  monsters,  (75)  which in the eyes of the Turks
          were the idols  or  talismans  of the city. At the principal
          door of St.  Sophia  he  alighted from his horse and entered
          the dome; and  such was his jealous regard for that monument
          of his glory,  that,  on observing a zealous Musulman in the
          act of breaking  the marble pavement, he admonished him with
          his scimitar that, if the spoil and captives were granted to
          the soldiers, the  public  and  private  buildings  had been
          reserved for the  prince.  By  his command the metropolis of
          the Eastern church  was  transformed into a mosque: the rich
          and

  
          portable instruments of  superstition  had been removed; the
          crosses were thrown  down; and the walls, which were covered
          with images and  mosaics,  were  washed  and  purified,  and
          restored to a state of naked simplicity. On the same day, or
          on the ensuing  Friday, the 'muezin', or crier, ascended the
          most lofty turret,  and  proclaimed  the  'esan',  or public
          invitation, in the  name  of  God  and his prophet; the imam
          preached and Mohammed  the  Second  performed the 'namaz' of
          prayer and thanks  giving  on  the  great  altar,  where the
          Christian mysteries had so lately been celebrated before the
          last of the Caesars. (76) From St. Sophia he proceeded to the
          august but desolate  mansion  of a hundred successors of the
          great  Constantine, but  which  in  a  few  hours  had  been
          stripped of the  pomp of royalty. A melancholy reflection on
          the vicissitudes of  human  greatness  forced  itself on his
          mind, and he  repeated an elegant distich of Persian poetry:
          " The spider  has  wove  his web in the Imperial palace, and
          the owl hath sung her watch-song on the towers of Afrasiab."
          (77)

  
          Yet his mind  was  not  satisfied,  nor did the victory seem
          complete, till he  was informed of the fate of Constantine -
          whether he had  escaped or been made prisoner, or had fallen
          in the battle.  Two Janizaries claimed the honour and reward
          of  his  death:  the  body,  under  a  heap  of  slain,  was
          discovered by the  golden  eagles  embroidered on his shoes;
          the Greeks acknowledged  with  tears  the head of their late
          emperor and, after  exposing the bloody trophy, (78) Mohammed
          bestowed on his rival the honours of a decent funeral. After
          his decease Lucas Notaras, great duke (79) and first minister
          of the empire,  was  the  most  important  prisoner. When he
          offered his person  and  his  treasures  at  the foot of the
          throne, " And why," said the indignant sultan, " did you not
          employ these treasures  in  the  defence  of your prince and
          country? "-" They were yours," answered the slave; " God had
          reserved them for  your  hands."-"  If  he reserved them for
          me," replied the despot, " how have you presumed to withhold
          them so long  by  a  fruitless  and  fatal resistance? " The
          great duke alleged  the obstinacy of the strangers, and some
          secret encouragement from the Turkish vizir;

  
          and from this  perilous interview he was at length dismissed
          with  the  assurance  of  pardon  and  protection.  Mohammed
          condescended  to  visit   his  wife,  a  venerable  princess
          oppressed with sickness  and  grief; and his consolation for
          her misfortunes was  in  the  most tender strain of humanity
          and filial reverence. A similar clemency was extended to the
          principal officers of  state,  of whom several were ransomed
          at his expense; and during some days he declared himself the
          friend and father  of  the  vanquished people. But the scene
          was soon changed,  and  before  his departure the hippodrome
          streamed  with  the  blood  of  his  noblest  captives.  His
          perfidious cruelty is  execrated  by  the  Christians:  they
          adorn with the  colours of heroic martyrdom the execution of
          the great duke  and  his two sons, and his death is ascribed
          to the generous  refusal  of  delivering his children to the
          tyrant's lust. Yet  a  Byzantine  historian  has  dropped an
          unguarded  word  of  conspiracy,  deliverance,  and  Italian
          succour: such treason  may  be  glorious;  but the rebel who
          bravely ventures, has  justly forfeited his life; nor should
          we blame a  conqueror for destroying the enemies whom he can
          no longer trust.  On  the  eighteenth of June the victorious
          sultan returned to  Adrianople,  and  smiled at the base and
          hollow embassies of  the Christian princes, who viewed their
          approaching ruin in the fall of the Eastern empire.

  
          Constantinople had been  left  naked and desolate, without a
          prince or a  people.  But  she could not be despoiled of the
          incomparable situation which marks her for the metropolis of
          a great empire;  and  the  genius  of  the  place  will ever
          triumph over the  accidents  of time and fortune. Boursa and
          Adrianople, the ancient  seats  of  the  Ottomans, sunk into
          provincial towns; and  Mohammed  the  Second established his
          own  residence and  that  of  his  successors  on  the  same
          commanding spot which  had  been  chosen by Constantine. (80)
          The fortifications of  Galata,  which might afford a shelter
          to the Latins,  were  prudently destroyed; but the damage of
          the Turkish cannon  was  soon repaired, and before the month
          of August great  quantities  of  lime had been burnt for the
          restoration of the  walls  of  the  capital.  As  the entire
          property  of the  soil  and  buildings,  whether  public  or
          private, or profane  or  sacred,  was now transferred to the
          conqueror, he first separated a space of eight furlongs from
          the point of  the  triangle  for  the  establishment  of his
          seraglio or palace. It is here, in the bosom of luxury, that
          the 'Grand Signor' (as he has been emphatically named by the
          Italians) appears to  reign  over  Europe  and Asia; but his
          person on the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus  may not always be
          secure from the  insults  of  a  hostile  navy.  In  the new
          character of a  mosque,  the  cathedral  of  St.  Sophia was
          endowed with an  ample revenue, crowned with lofty minarets,
          and surrounded with

  
          groves and fountains for the devotion and refreshment of the
          Moslems The same  model was imitated in the 'jami', or royal
          mosques; and the  first  of  these  was  built  by  Mohammed
          himself, on the ruins of the church of the holy apostles and
          the tombs of  the Greek emperors. On the third day after the
          conquest the grave  of  Abou Ayub, or Job, who had fallen in
          the first siege  of the Arabs, was revealed in a vision; and
          it is before  the  sepulchre  of  the  martyr  that  the new
          sultans  are  girded   with   the   sword   of  empire.  (81)
          Constantinople no longer  appertains to the Roman historian;
          nor shall I  enumerate the civil and religious edifices that
          were  profaned  or  erected  by  its  Turkish  masters:  the
          population was speedily  renewed,  and  before  the  end  of
          September five thousand families of Anatolia and Romania had
          obeyed the royal mandate, which enjoined them, under pain of
          death, to occupy  their  new habitations in the capital. The
          throne of Mohammed  was  guarded by the numbers and fidelity
          of his Moslem  subjects;  but his rational policy aspired to
          collect the remnant  of  the  Greeks,  and  they returned in
          crowds as soon  as  they  were assured of their lives, their
          liberties, and the  free  exercise of their religion. In the
          election and investiture  of  a  patriarch the ceremonial of
          the Byzantine court was revived and imitated. With a mixture
          of satisfaction and  horror,  they  beheld the sultan on his
          throne,  who delivered  into  the  hands  of  Gennadius  the
          crosier or pastoral  staff, the symbol of his ecclesiastical
          office; who conducted  the  patriarch  to  the  gate  of the
          seraglio, presented him with a horse richly caparisoned, and
          directed the vizirs  and  bashaws  to lead him to the palace
          which had been  allotted for his residence. (82) The churches
          of Constantinople were  shared  between  the  two religions:
          their limits were  marked;  and,  till  it  was infringed by
          Selim, the grandson  of  Mohammed,  the  Greeks (83) enjoyed
          above sixty years  the  benefit  of  this  equal  partition.
          Encouraged by the  ministers  of  the  divan,  who wished to
          elude the fanaticism  of the sultan, the Christian advocates
          presumed to allege  that  this division had been an act, not
          of generosity, but  of  justice;  not  a  concession,  but a
          compact; and that, if one-half of the city had been taken by
          storm, the other  moiety  had  surrendered on the faith of a
          sacred capitulation. The original grant had indeed been

  
          consumed by fire; but the loss was supplied by the testimony
          of three aged Janizaries who remembered the transaction, and
          their venal oaths  are  of  more  weight  in  the opinion of
          Cantemir than the  positive  and  unanimous  consent  of the
          history of the times. (84)

  
          The remaining fragments  of  the Greek kingdom in Europe and
          Asia I shall  abandon  to  the  Turkish  arms; but the final
          extinction of the  two last dynasties (85) which have reigned
          in Constantinople should  terminate  the decline and fall of
          the Roman empire  in  the  East.  The  despots of the Morea,
          Demetrius and Thomas,  (86) the two surviving brothers of the
          name of PALAEOLOGUS,  were  astonished  by  the death of the
          emperor Constantine and  the  ruin of the monarchy. Hopeless
          of defence, they prepared, with the noble Greeks who adhered
          to their fortune,  to  seek  a  refuge  in Italy, beyond the
          reach of the Ottoman thunder. Their first apprehensions were
          dispelled by the  victorious  sultan,  who contented himself
          with a tribute  of  twelve  thousand  ducats;  and while his
          ambition explored the continent and the islands in search of
          prey, he indulged the Morea in a respite of seven years. But
          this respite was a period of grief, discord, and misery. The
          'hexamilion', the rampart  of  the  isthmus, so often raised
          and so often  subverted, could not long be defended by three
          hundred Italian archers:  the keys of Corinth were seized by
          the Turks; they returned from their summer excursions with a
          train of captives  and  spoil,  and  the  complaints  of the
          injured Greeks were heard with indifference and disdain. The
          Albanians, a vagrant  tribe of shepherds and robbers, filled
          the  peninsula with  rapine  and  murder:  the  two  despots
          implored the dangerous and humiliating aid of a neighbouring
          bashaw; and when  he  had  quelled  the  revolt, his lessons
          inculcated the rule  of  their  future  conduct. Neither the
          ties of blood,  nor  the oaths which they repeatedly pledged
          in the communion  and  before  the  altar,  nor the stronger
          pressure of necessity,  could  reconcile  or  suspend  their
          domestic quarrels. They  ravaged each other's patrimony with
          fire and sword;  the  alms  and  succours  of  the West were
          consumed in civil hostility, and their power was only

  
          exerted in savage and arbitrary executions. The distress and
          revenge of the weaker rival invoked their supreme lord; and,
          in the season  of  maturity  and  revenge, Mohammed declared
          himself the friend  of Demetrius, and marched into the Morea
          with an irresistible  force. When he had taken possession of
          Sparta, " You  are  too weak," said the sultan, " to control
          this turbulent province;  I  will  take  your daughter to my
          bed, and you  shall  pass  the  remainder  of  your  life in
          security  and  honour."   Demetrius   sighed   and   obeyed;
          surrendered  his  daughter  and  his  castles,  followed  to
          Adrianople his sovereign  and  son, and received for his own
          maintenance and that  of his followers a city in Thrace, and
          the adjacent isles of Imbros, Lemnos, and Samothrace. He was
          joined the next  year by a companion of misfortune, the last
          of  the  COMNENIAN   race,   who,   after   the   taking  of
          Constantinople by the  Latins,  had  founded a new empire on
          the coast of  the  Black  Sea.  (87)  In  the progress of his
          Anatolian conquests, Mohammed  invested with a fleet and arm
          the capital of  David, who presumed to style himself emperor
          of Trebizond; (88)  and  the  negotiation  was comprised in a
          short and peremptory  question.  " Will you secure your life
          and treasures by  resigning  your kingdom? or had you rather
          forfeit your kingdom,  your  treasures, and your life? " The
          feeble Comnenus was  subdued  by  his  own  fears,  and  the
          example of a  Musulman  neighbour, the prince of Sinope, (89)
          who, on a similar summons, had yielded a fortified city with
          four hundred cannon and ten or twelve thousand soldiers. The
          capitulation of Trebizond  was faithfully performed, and the
          emperor, with his  family,  was  transported  to a castle in
          Romania; but on a slight suspicion of corresponding with the
          Persian king, David,  and  the  whole  Comnenian  race, were
          sacrificed to the  jealousy or avarice of the conqueror. Nor
          could  the name  of  father  long  protect  the  unfortunate
          Demetrius from exile and confiscation: his abject submission
          moved the pity  and  contempt  of  the sultan; his followers
          were transplanted to  Constantinople,  and  his  poverty was
          alleviated by a  pension  of  fifty  thousand aspers, till a
          monastic habit and a tardy death released Palaologus from an
          earthly master. It  is  not  easy  to  pronounce whether the
          servitude of Demetrius,

  
          100) ascribes to  the  modern  city 60,000 inhabitants. This
          account seems enormous;  yet  it is by trading with a people
          that we become acquainted with their wealth and numbers.]

  
          or  the  exile   of  his  brother  Thomas,(90)  be  the  most
          inglorious. On the  conquest of the Morea the despot escaped
          to  Corfu,  and  from  thence  to  Italy,  with  some  naked
          adherents: his name,  his  sufferings,  and  the head of the
          apostle St. Andrew,  entitled  him to the hospitality of the
          Vatican; and his  misery  was  prolonged by a pension of six
          thousand ducats from  the  pope and cardinals. His two sons,
          Andrew and Manuel,  were  educated in Italy; but the eldest,
          contemptible to his  enemies  and burdensome to his friends,
          was degraded by  the  baseness  of  his life and marriage. A
          title was his  sole  inheritance;  and  that  inheritance he
          successively sold to  the  kings  of France and Arragon. (91)
          During his transient  prosperity,  Charles  the  Eighth  was
          ambitious of joining the empire of the East with the kingdom
          of Naples: in  a  public festival he assumed the appellation
          and the purple  of  Augustus;  the  Greeks rejoiced, and the
          Ottoman already trembled,  at  the  approach  of  the French
          chivalry. (92) Manuel Palaelogus, the second son, was tempted
          to revisit his native country: his return might be grateful,
          and could not  be dangerous, to the Porte; he was maintained
          at Constantinople in  safety  and  ease,  and  an honourable
          train of Christians  and  Moslems attended him to the grave.
          If there be  some  animals of so generous a nature that they
          refuse to propagate  in  a  domestic  state, the last of the
          Imperial race must  be  ascribed  to  an  inferior  kind; he
          accepted from the sultan's liberality two beautiful females,
          and his surviving  son was lost in the habit and religion of
          a Turkish slave.

  
          The importance of  Constantinople  was felt and magnified in
          its loss: the  pontificate  of  Nicholas  the Fifth, however
          peaceful and prosperous,  was dishonoured by the fall of the
          Eastern empire; and  the  grief  and  terror  of  the Latins
          revived, or seemed  to  revive,  the  old  enthusiasm of the
          crusades. In one  of the most distant countries cf the West,
          Philip duke of  Burgundy  entertained, at Lisle in Flanders,
          an assembly of  his  nobles; and the pompous pageants of the
          feast were skilfully adapted to their fancy and feelings.(93)
          In the midst  of  the banquet a gigantic Saracen entered the
          hall, leading a  fictitious  elephant  with  a castle on his
          back: a matron in a mourning robe, the symbol of

  
          religion, was seen  to  issue  from the castle: she deplored
          her oppression and  accused  the  slowness of her champions:
          the principal herald  of the golden fleece advanced, bearing
          on his fist  a  live pheasant, which, according to the rites
          of  chivalry,  he   presented   to  the  duke.  At  this  ex
          traordinary summons, Philip, a wise and aged prince, engaged
          his person and powers in the holy war against the Turks: his
          example was imitated  by  the  barons  and  knights  of  the
          assembly: they swore  to God the Virgin, the ladies, and the
          pheasant;  and  their   particular   vows   were   not  less
          extravagant than the general sanction of their oath. But the
          performance was made  to  depend  on some future and foreign
          contingency; and during  twelve years, till the last hour of
          his life, the  duke  of  Burgundy might be scrupulously, and
          perhaps sincerely, on  the  eve  of his departure. Had every
          breast glowed with  the  same  ardour,  had the union of the
          Christians  corresponded  with   their  bravery;  had  every
          country from Sweden (94) to Naples supplied a just proportion
          of cavalry and  infantry,  of  men  and  money, it is indeed
          probable that Constantinople  would have been delivered, and
          that the Turks  might have been chased beyond the Hellespont
          or the Euphrates.  But  the  secretary  of  the emperor, who
          composed every epistle,  and  attended every meeting, Aeneas
          Sylvius, (95) a  statesman and orator, describes from his own
          experience the repugnant  state and spirit of Christendom. "
          It is a  body," says he, "without a head; a republic without
          laws or magistrates.  The  pope and the emperor may shine as
          lofty titles, as  splendid  images;  but  they are unable to
          command, and none  are  willing  to  obey: every state has a
          separate prince, and  every  prince has a separate interest.
          What eloquence could  unite  so  many discordant and hostile
          powers under the  same  standard? Could they be assembled in
          arms, who would  dare  to assume the office of general? What
          order could be  maintained?  - what military discipline? Who
          would undertake to  feed  such  an  enormous  multitude? Who
          would understand their  various  languages,  or direct their
          stranger  and  incompatible   manners?   What  mortal  could
          reconcile the English  with  the French, Genoa with Arragon,
          the Germans with  the  natives  of Hungary and Bohemia? If a
          small  number  enlisted  in  the  holy  war,  they  must  be
          overthrown by the infidels: if many, by their own weight and
          confusion." Yet the  same  Aeneas, when he was raised to the
          papal throne, under the name of Pius the Second, devoted his
          life to the  prosecution  of the Turkish war. In the council
          of Mantua he  excited  some  sparks  of  a  false  or feeble
          enthusiasm; but when  the  pontiff  appeared  at  Ancona, to
          embark in person  with  the  troops, engagements vanished in
          excuses; a precise  day was adjourned to an indefinite term;
          and his effective army consisted of some German

  
          pilgrims, whom he  was  obliged  to disband with indulgences
          and alms. Regardless  of  futurity,  his  successors and the
          powers of Italy  were involved in the schemes of present and
          domestic ambition; and  the  distance  or  proximity of each
          object determined in  their  eyes  its apparent magnitude. A
          more enlarged view  of their interest would have taught them
          to maintain a  defensive  and  naval  war against the common
          enemy; and the support of Scanderbeg and his brave Albanians
          might have prevented  the subsequent invasion of the kingdom
          of Naples. The  siege  and  sack  of  Otranto  by  the Turks
          diffused  a  general  consternation;  and  Pope  Sixtus  was
          preparing  to fly  beyond  the  Alps,  when  the  storm  was
          instantly dispelled by  the death of Mohammed the Second, in
          the fifty-first year  of  his  age.  (96)  His  lofty  genius
          aspired to the  conquest  of  Italy:  he  was possessed of a
          strong city and  a  capacious  harbour;  and  the same reign
          might have been  decorated  with the trophies of the NEW and
          the ANCIENT ROME.(97)

  

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