HERODOTUS AND THE BIBLE
by
Wayne Jackson
Herodotus was a Greek historian of the 5th century B.C. It is
believed that he lived approximately 484-425 BC For a number of years
he traveled throughout the Persian empire, Egypt, and Scythia observing
the culture of these ancient peoples. In his later life, Herodotus
lived in Athens, and finally settled in Italy where he spent the
remainder of his days refining his famous masterpiece, `The Persian
Wars'. As a consequence of this work, Cicero dubbed him "the father of
history." His literary efforts consisted of nine books dealing with the
Greek/Persian wars (500-479 BC), together with a history of the customs
and geography of these combatants. In his effort to accomplish this
feat, he went further and sought to give, as an introduction to the
story, the whole history of the antique world as it was then known.
This material occupies the first six of his nine books. He is generally
viewed as the first writer to so unify the record of facts as to raise
historical narrative to the level of literature. It should be noted,
however, that his history was written in an age that lacked an
abundance of solid factual documentation; his work is thus considerably
grounded in oral tradition.
In numerous instances, the narratives of the Old Testament, and
those of Herodotus, cross trails. Do the writings of this Greek
historian have any bearing on the text of the Bible? Indeed they do.
Liberal writers have long claimed that many of the Old Testament
records do not actually possess the antiquity they claim. Some of them
are alleged to have come from a much later period. What shall be said
in response to these charges? What does the evidence actually indicate?
The documents of the Old Testament frequently appeal to cultural
elements and ancient events which should be consistent with the eras
from which they purport to come. Thus, these are "checkable" matters.
Do the biblical writings bear those tell-tale marks of accuracy which
one has a right to expect if they are genuine historical records
reflecting the background of the Hebrew people within a given time-
frame? We confidentially affirm that they do, and the writings of
Herodotus become an important source of information in this
controversy.
THE BIBLE, HERODOTUS, AND EGYPT
As every serious Bible student knows, the activities of the
Egyptian and the Israelite people come together several times in
ancient history. From the time of Abraham, through the period of the
exodus, there was considerable familiarity between Egypt and the
Hebrews. Consider the following examples which provide a sense of
integrity to the Jewish Scriptures.
The common title of the Egyptian rulers was "Pharaoh" (Genesis
39:1; Exodus 5:1), meaning "the great house." Herodotus mentions an
Egyptian ruler called "Pheron" (ii.111), a name or title strikingly
similar to the foregoing. In Genesis the Pharaoh is represented as
having great authority (40:3,21-22; 41:34, 41-44). Similarly the Greek
historian describes the supreme control of the Egyptian rulers who
could arbitrarily make laws (ii.136,177).
One recalls the lewdness of Potiphar's wife who, though married,
continuously sought to seduce the young Joseph (Genesis 39:7-10).
Herodotus tells of an Egyptian ruler who, for the sake of performing an
experiment, searched "at length" for a married woman "who had been
faithful to her husband" (ii.111).
Pharaoh's chief butler, with whom Joseph was imprisoned, dreamed of
returning to his position and of squeezing ripe grapes into the king's
cup (Genesis 40:10-11). Some critics cite this as a biblical mistake,
asserting that Herodotus declares that the Egyptians grow no vines
(ii.77). However, the historian may have been alluding only to certain
regions of Egypt, since elsewhere he specifically mentions the priests
as drinking "wine made from the grape" (ii.37). In the dream of the
chief baker, the baker saw himself carrying baskets of bread upon his
head (Genesis 40:16). Herodotus mentions that whereas the Egyptian
women transported burdens upon their shoulders, the men carried them
upon their heads (ii.35). This is the very opposite of the custom in
many countries.
When Joseph received his estranged brothers into his house, they
were given water with which to wash their feet (Genesis 43:24). There
is the record of an Egyptian ruler who had a golden foot-pan "in which
his guests" were provided water to wash their feet (ii.172). The Mosaic
narrative records that when Joseph's brothers returned from Canaan with
Benjamin, the ruling prince commanded his servants to slay animals and
prepare a noontime feast for his visiting kinsmen (Genesis 43:16).
While some have contended that the Egyptians, due to their worship of
animals, did not eat flesh, the evidence does not warrant that
conclusion. Herodotus notes of certain priests: "...every day bread is
baked for them of the sacred corn, and a plentiful supply of beef and
of goose's flesh is assigned to each" (ii.37). Elsewhere he describes
how a sacrificial "steer" is prepared for ceremonial feasting (ii.40).
The Genesis account states that the Egyptians would not eat bread with
the Hebrews for such a practice was an abomination from their religious
viewpoint (43:32). The Egyptians considered all foreigners unclean.
Concerning the Greeks, the "father of history" writes: "...no native of
Egypt, whether man or woman, will give a Greek a kiss, or use the knife
of a Greek, or his spit, or his cauldron, or taste the flesh of an ox,
known to be pure, if it has been cut with a Greek knife" (ii.41).
The medical profession in Egypt was highly advanced. Herodotus
observed that medicine was specialized so that "each physician treats a
single disorder" (ii.84). Jeremiah once chastised: "O virgin daughter
of Egypt: in vain dost thou use many medicines; there is no healing for
thee" (45:11). When Jacob died, "physicians" were commanded by Joseph
to embalm the patriarch (Genesis 50:2). The Greek historian gives an
elaborate description of the embalming process which commenced with the
removal of most of the brain with an iron hook through the nostrils,
the balance being flushed out with drugs. The body cavity was filled
"with the purest bruised myrrh, with cassia, and every other sort of
spicery" (ii.86). One cannot but be reminded of that Ishmaelite caravan
to which Joseph was sold. Headed down into Egypt, it was bearing
"spicery and balm and myrrh" (Genesis 37:25; cf. John 19:39). The body
was then put into a "wooden case" which had been "carved into the
figure of a man." Joseph's body was placed in a coffin when he expired
(Genesis 50:26). When Jacob died, "the Egyptians wept for him seventy
days" (Genesis 50:3). Herodotus describes how Egyptian men and women,
during the mourning period, would wander the streets, beating their
breasts (ii.85).
After Joseph died, a new king arose in Egypt who was not so
favorably disposed toward the Hebrew people. The Israelites became
slaves under a despotic ruler. "Taskmasters" were set over them and
they were employed in the manufacture of bricks made of mud (Exodus
1:14). Though stone was a ready building material in Egypt, Herodotus
speaks of bricks made of mud (ii.136). These were used in ordinary
dwelling houses, tombs, walls, etc. The bricks were made of river mud
and straw, shaped in wooden molds and left to dry in the sun. The
chemical decay of the straw within the clay formed an acid which gave
the clay greater plasticity for brick-making. Remember that when the
Israelites' labor was intensified, they were forced to provide their
own straw (Exodus 5:10-13). In the Oriental Institute in Chicago, there
is a dried mud brick, with protruding fragments of straw, stamped with
the Cartouche (oval figure) of Ramses II.
When Moses was a baby, his mother hid him for three months, fearing
the wrath of the Pharaoh. When she could conceal the child no longer,
she made a small boat of bulrushes, i.e., the papyrus plant, and placed
it at the edge of the Nile river (Exodus 2:3). The use of papyrus in
making boats was distinctly Egyptian and not in vogue elsewhere.
Herodotus mentions the use of papyrus in caulking Egyptian boats and in
the manufacture of sails (ii.96).
THE BIBLE, HERODOTUS, AND ASSYRIA
When Hezekiah was ruler of Judah, Sennacherib, king of Assyria,
marched against Israel's southern kingdom (see II Kings 18:13ff; Isaiah
36:1ff). According to his records, the monarch took forty-six Judean
cities. In fact, he sent his army to Jerusalem where he boasted that he
shut up Hezekiah "like a bird in a cage." He did not, however, take the
holy city. Why not? Because Jehovah intervened, in response to
Hezekiah's prayer, and destroyed 185,000 Assyrian soldiers in one night
(II Kings 19:35). Herodotus has a garbled account of this disaster that
crippled the Assyrian forces. He records that Sennacherib marched
against Egypt. During a certain night, though, field mice supposedly
invaded the Assyrian camp and gnawed the quivers, bow strings and
leather shield handles, thus disarming the military force. As a
consequence, many of the soldiers were killed and others fled (ii.141).
Dr. I. M. Price, who served as professor of Semitic languages and
literature at the University of Chicago, noted that this account "has
some basis, doubtless, in fact, and is an echo of some calamity to the
Assyrian army" (1907, p 191). Leon J. Wood commented that the account
provides "indirect confirmation of the biblical miracle" (1986, p 306).
J. P. Free observes: "There is no evidence in the archaeological
records that Sennacherib ever returned to the region of Palestine"
(1950, p 209). This is a dramatic commentary on the Assyrian army's
loss to the might of Jehovah.
THE BIBLE, HERODOTUS, AND THE PHOENICIANS
Phoenicia was a small country on the Mediterranean coast northwest
of Canaan. Naturally, there was frequent contact between the
Phoenicians and the Hebrew people. Again, the accuracy of the biblical
descriptions of these people is forcefully demonstrated by the secular
historical record. The Old Testament represents the Phoenicians as
skilled in the hewing of timber (I Kings 5:6). They were fine craftsmen
in gold, silver, brass, and iron. The king of Tyre made some of the
vessels and pillars for Solomon's temple (I Kings 7:21-23). Herodotus
once visited Tyre, a leading city of Phoenicia, and he described a
temple as "richly adorned with a number of offerings, among which were
two pillars, one of pure gold, the other of emerald, shining with great
brilliancy at night" (ii.44). The historian commented that the people
of Tyre boasted that their city had stood for 2,300 years. Isaiah
appears to take note of this claim: "Is this your joyous city, whose
antiquity is of ancient days?" (23:7). Several Old Testament prophets
foretold Tyre's subjection to the Babylonians (see Jeremiah 25:22;
27:1-11; Ezekiel 26:1-28:19; 29:18-20; Zechariah 9:2ff). Isaiah
declared that Tyre would be "forgotten seventy years," but that after
that period (likely the era of the Babylonian domination), the city
would "return to her hire," that is, her prosperity would resume
(23:15-17). This is confirmed by Herodotus who notes that in the time
of the Persian rulers, Darius Hystaspis and Xerxes, the Phoenicians
were providing their ships as allies for Persian conquests (v.108;
vii.89).
THE BIBLE, HERODOTUS, AND BABYLON
Ancient Babylon was known as the "glory of the kingdoms" (Isaiah
13:19), indeed "the praise of the whole earth" (Jeremiah 51:41).
Babylon's beauty, strength and prominence were unparalleled in the
ancient world. The citadel seemed impregnable. Jeremiah alluded to
Babylon's massive fortifications (51:53,58). Herodotus says that the
city was enclosed by great walls 350 feet high and 75 feet thick
(i.178). Isaiah spoke of Babylon's "doors of brass" (45:2). The Greek
historian declared that 100 gates of brass were in the wall (i.179).
There are several prophecies which indicate that God would
overthrow the "golden city" by the providential use of His "shepherd,"
His "anointed one," Cyrus, king of Persia (Isaiah 44:28; 45:1), and in
conjunction therewith He would "dry up" Babylon's water (Isaiah 44:27;
Jeremiah 50:38; 51:36). What does this mean? Herodotus describes the
city as straddling the Euphrates river. He records that Cyrus diverted
the river, by means of a canal, into a nearby basin. Even then, says
he, the Babylonians could have defended the city, except for the fact
that in their confidence they "were engaged in a festival"
characterized by dancing and revelry, and so were taken by surprise
(i.191). With great precision, Jeremiah prophesied this very
circumstance. The inmates of the city would be feasting and drunken
(51:39,57), and thus captured unaware (50:24). It must be emphasized in
this connection that Jeremiah gave these prophecies about 56 years
before the fall of Babylon (cf. 51:59), and about 150 years before the
Greek historian produced his work! In a curious declaration, Isaiah
prophetically addresses Babylon as follows: "Come now, and sit in the
dust, O virgin daughter of Babylon, sit on the ground" (47:1). What is
the significance of the appellation "virgin"? It apparently is a
reference to the fact that the mighty city had never been ravished
before. Significantly, Herodotus describes the assault of Cyrus as "the
first taking of Babylon" (i.191). Incredible!
THE BIBLE, HERODOTUS, AND PERSIA
After the fall of Babylon, the Hebrews were under Persian control
for two centuries. Cyrus, a benevolent Persian monarch, had issued a
decree that allowed the Jews to return to their homeland to rebuild
their temple. A start in the construction project was initiated but it
eventually fell into disarray. Finally, after more than 15 years, the
work was resumed. There was, however, at first, mild opposition. Did
the Jews have regal authority for the project? A search was made for
Cyrus' original decree of authorization. When the document was located,
oddly, it was not found in Babylon or Susa, as might be expected since
this was where the Persian kings usually resided, but in Achmetha
(Ecbatana) in the province of the Medes (Ezra 6:2). There is a passage
in Herodotus, however, which appears to indicate that, contrary to the
usual custom, Cyrus held his court in Ecbatana, hence, kept his
archives there (i.153). As Professor Rawlinson of Oxford observed,
"this is one of those little points of agreement between the sacred and
the profane which are important because their very minuteness is an
indication that they are purely casual and unintentional" (1873, p
196).
When the original document of Cyrus was located, Darius, the then-
reigning monarch, issued a decree authorizing the resumption of work on
the temple, even providing expense money from "tribute" collected in
the provinces "beyond the [Euphrates] river" (Ezra 6:8). According to
Herodotus, Darius was the first Persian king to extract such "tribute"
money (iii.89). Moreover, the king warned that if any should alter his
decree, "let a beam be pulled out from his house, and let him be lifted
up and fastened thereon" (Ezra 6:11). This was no idle threat, for, as
Herodotus records, at the second conquest of Babylon, Darius crucified
about 3,000 citizens of the city (iii.159).
In the book of Esther one learns that the maidens of the royal
harem could only go into unto the king when their "turn" came (Esther
1:12), and any violation of this procedure could incur the death
penalty (4:11). Herodotus says: "In Persia a man's wives sleep with him
in their turns" (iii.69), and invasion of the king's privacy was
punishable by death (iii.72,77). Mordecai, Esther's cousin, had foiled
a plot against the life of king Ahasuerus (Esther 2:21-22), and an
account of that act of patriotism had been written in "the book of
records" (Esther 6:1). In Persia, a list of "the king's benefactors"
was maintained with a view of returning such kindnesses (viii.85).
Examples like those of the foregoing paragraphs could be multiplied
many times over. Truly, Herodotus provides unwitting testimony to the
accuracy of the Old Testament. The precision of the ancient Scriptures
is utterly amazing. The Bible passes every test of credibility. Let us
honor it as the Word of the living God.
REFERENCES
Free, Joseph P. (1950), `Archaeology and Bible History' (Wheaton, IL:
Van Kampen Press).
`Histories of Herodotus' (1964), George Rawlinson, Translator (London:
Dent), 2 volumes.
Price, Ira M. (1907), `The Monuments and the Old Testament'
(Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society).
Rawlinson, George (1873), `Historical Illustrations of the Old
Testament' (Boston: Henry Young & Co.).
Wood, Leon J. (1986), `A Survey of Israel's History' (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan).
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